ERIC EJ884370: Assistive Technology and Emergent Literacy for Preschoolers: A Literature Review

2008·0.29 MB·English

by  ERIC

Fall 2008, Vol.5, Num. 1
Assistive Technology and Emergent Literacy for
Preschoolers: A Literature Review

Kimberly Kris Floyd
Old Dominion University

Lora Lee Smith Canter
Tara Jeffs
East Carolina University

Sharon A. Judge
Old Dominion University

Abstract: Despite the legislative mandate for importance. Given this expectation for
assistive technology (AT) consideration and children entering Kindergarten, the push for
the tenacity of researchers, educators, and effective, early, literacy instruction must
practitioners to develop more proficient become a curricular concern and emphasis for
readers at younger ages, cohesive and early childhood educators. Additionally, the
comprehensive emergent literacy technology prominence of providing students with
planning has not been sufficiently developed disabilities access to the general curriculum
for preschool children with disabilities. The only strengthens the significance of literacy
purpose of this review is to synthesize skill development in early childhood
information and research on available AT environments given that access to the general
used with young children to promote the curriculum for preschool children occurs
development of emergent literacy skills. within the daily, instructional, early childhood
Following the background discussion, key curricula.
articles will be summarized, synthesized, and
critiqued. Discussion focuses on the lack of Developing the skills necessary to become
empirical research in the combined areas of literate and perform competently in a literate
emergent literacy, AT, and preschool children; society begins very early in a child’s life. From
the need for conceptualized definitions of AT birth, children begin to interact with the world
and emergent literacy across disciplines; around them, and some of the most
existing barriers; and gaps in the research. naturalistic behaviors of children can
influence the beginnings of literacy
Keywords: Assistive technology, Emergent development. For the purpose of this article,
literacy, Preschool, Early childhood emergent literacy is conceptualized as global
early experiences that create a foundation of
Literacy skills are critical for every person in life-long literacy and academic and personal
the U.S. Legislation such as the Goals 2000: success (Lankshear & Knobel, 2003). The
Educate America Act and No Child Left early experiences that children engage in from
Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) stress the birth through the time when they adopt
importance of reading at every entry level-- conventional literacy skills bring “meaning to
from early childhood through adulthood. reading and writing” (Koenig & Holbrook,
They have emphasized that creating a literate 2000, p. 265). These early experiences include:
society is considered of paramount (a) learning to listen and respond to oral
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communication; (b) interacting with written essential vocabulary. High-tech solutions
text (e.g. holding books, ‘reading’ books by typically involve the computer or have
using the pictures); and (c) exploring the computer components, such as specialized
written and verbal world (e.g. scribbling with a software and advanced hardware devices. AT
crayon, turning pages, talking with others, and encompasses both low- and high-tech options
pretending to read; Justice & Pullen, 2003; with the federal definition culminating and
Koenig, 1992). In short, emergent literacy is addressing all aspects:
the cornerstone of future literacy functioning.
AT has been defined in the Individuals with
NCLB created the Early Reading First (ERF) Disabilities Education Improvement Act of
program to improve teacher practices, 2004 (IDEIA) as “any item, piece of
instructional content, and classroom equipment, or product system, whether
environments in preschool settings. The acquired commercially or off the shelf,
anticipation was to assist in ensuring that modified, or customized, that is used to
young children start school with the skills increase, maintain, or improve the functional
needed for academic success. Whether capabilities of a child with a disability” [20
educators and researchers agree on the means U.S.C. § 1401(a)(25)]. This legislation echoed
government is using to promote literacy and the benefit of AT by emphasizing that both
institute lofty literacy goals for all children, Individualized Education Plan (IEP) and
there is no disagreement that literacy is one of Individualized Family Services Plan (IFSP)
the most important areas of learning for all teams consider the use of AT within the
individuals. There is a stronger emergent child’s learning environment (Mandlawitz,
literacy skill development research base for 2006). Addressing AT considerations is not a
children ages five to eight, K-3rd grade, and mere luxury, but rather a federally mandated
older elementary and middle grade students requirement.
than for children who are three to five years
of age. In general, the research base is slowly In addition to the federal mandates, a position
but steadily validating best practices for early statement generated by the Division on
literacy education of children (Erickson & Mental Retardation and Developmental
Koppenhaver, 1995). Disabilities of the Council of Exceptional
Children stated that persons with
Assistive Technology developmental disabilities do, in fact, benefit
from the use of AT (Parette, 1997). More
Just as the definition of early literacy has specifically for young children, the National
expanded, so have the parameters of assistive Association for the Education of Young
technology (AT). Technology can take many Children (NAEYC, 1996) has supported the
forms such as (a) no-tech, (b) low-tech, and developmentally appropriate integration of
(c) high-tech. No tech is simply that: no technology in preschool settings.
technology is involved; instead, strategies are
used to provide an opportunity for learner AT can benefit children with increased
success (e.g. extended time, colored folders, opportunities for socialization,
index cards, chunking materials, and/or communication attempts and interaction,
pairing pictures with print). Low-tech increased self-esteem and confidence, as well
solutions involve use of straightforward tools as developing language and communication
such as simple voice output devices, adapted skills (Erickson & Koppenhaver, 1995;
scissors, raised-lined paper, step-by-step Hutinger & Clark, 2000). This parallels the
picture schedules, and /or printed labels with Social Learning Theory first presented by
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Vygotsky (1996) in which children learn Earlier works of Kamil and Intraror (1998)
through interaction, communication, and play, and Lankshear and Knobel (2003) exposed
thus strengthening the importance of AT and the fact that the area of literacy and the use of
its critical link to increased communicative technology were radically under-researched.
attempts, more engaged play, and increased Kamil and Intraror reviewed the literature for
socialization. Children vary greatly on how empirical based research articles from the
they access, use, and engage learning materials years 1986 to 1995 that pertained to school–
(Strangman & Dalton, 2005). AT provides aged children and literacy and technology use
tools for young children to become active in a broad sense. Lankshear and Knobel built
versus passive learners. on Kamil and Intrator’s review by surveying
professional journals for research studies
Preschoolers with special needs have many published from 1996 through 2002, and
options at their disposal with the advances in which encompassed new technologies
technology, availability of AT, as well as the (computer-based applications) and early
growing array of AT devices. However, it childhood literacy (ages 0-8 years). Building
should be noted, having a repertoire of on these earlier works we examined current
devices is not enough to ensure that the needs literature that addressed assistive technology,
of a student are compensated with emergent literacy and early childhood (ages 3
appropriate technology tools. The challenge to 5).
has been taking the next step, such as
matching appropriate AT to the needs of The purpose of this review is three-fold: to (a)
preschoolers with disabilities. A key factor to conduct a literature review of scholarly
successful integration is to match learner publications in the area of AT that focus on
needs with appropriate technology needed for emergent literacy for preschoolers, (b) discuss
the instructional task, while simultaneously the outcomes and benefits of AT, and (c)
evaluating the teacher’s knowledge and describe implications for future research. This
experience to implement the AT (Judge, review closely follows a research synthesis
2006). model developed by Edyburn (2000). Within
such a model, the examination of the
AT, Emergent Literacy, and Preschool Aged literature was conducted by applying four
Children procedures. These included: (a) search
procedures, (b) inclusion criteria, (c)
AT may hold promise for helping aid relevance, and (d) completion of article
children’s development in many areas; analysis form per each article reviewed. The
however, even with the recognition of the following section provides greater detail
benefits of technology there has been little regarding each procedure.
information about the effect technology use
has on preschool-aged children’s development Method
(Skeele & Stefankiewicz, 2002). It is very
possible that AT could enhance the Procedures
developmental skills targeted by emergent
literacy activities (e.g., cognitive development, Search procedures. Article search
language development), but there is a dearth procedures were conducted using the
of empirical studies which address the following components: (a) electronic-based
acquisition of emergent literacy skills and the searches in the Library Information Access
use of AT. System through the Educational Resources
Information Center (ERIC), ProQuest, and
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Infotrac® using AT with key descriptors or AT; and (c) a traditional search using the
truncation (i.e., ‘technology,’ ‘disabilities,’ reference section of articles obtained through
‘alternate and augmentative communication the above two methods.
[AAC],’ ‘emergent literacy,’ ‘early literacy,’
‘preschool’); (b) a manual search of refereed Inclusion criteria. Using the selection
journals publishing articles on disabilities, criteria procedures described above, more
early childhood education, literacy, AAC, and than 500 articles were found. The selection
Table 1
Coverage and Scope of Articles Selected for Review

Study Purpose Critique
Beck (2002) Case study examining how AT Variations were noted in how technology components
affected emergent literacy in a were used which may call into question the fidelity,
preschool classroom for students reliability and validity
with multiple disabilities
Case study methodology. Noted a teacher-made checklist
to collect data on progression of both student receptive
and expressive knowledge of symbols though it was not
specifically described.

Technologies used: picture communication symbols,
adapted books, Big Mack switch, Intellikeys/Intellitools.

Hutinger et al. (2006) Longitudinal Study Strong reliability, validity, and fidelity measures

Dependent variable: Primary findings:
Computer use; teacher perception Teachers need significant training and support when
implementing an innovation
Independent variables: Children did make gains in literacy measures
Use or non use of the model
Length of time the teachers received Secondary findings:
replication training and follow up Data analysis is ongoing
Technologies used: computer-based activities/software

Lankshear & Knobel Intent was to map recent research Teachers’ attitudes and perceptions did impact technology
(2003) pertaining to new technologies and use and were related to lack of understanding software,
early childhood literacy in ways that narrow definition of literacy, lack of time, and expertise.
may be useful to early childhood
educators and researchers Similar search and procedure as this review.

Marsh (2004) Family surveys: Avg age of children The authors make a case for techno-literacy to actually be
in the families was 2 yrs 8 mo. considered a form of emergent literacy in itself; in essence,
Families were targeted from it is not how technology can enhance literacy but the fact
disadvantaged environments in that technology has become a part of emergent literacy as
home. 26 families of the 44 much as the experience.
volunteered to be interviewed and
they were the parents of 13 boys Different cultural perspective than the dominant culture in
and 13 girls the U.S.

Technology used: television, film, computer games, and
mobile phones.
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criterion was further refined by limiting the Limitations
inclusion to AT with the following categories:
emergent or early literacy (n = 23), then This review was a focused examination of
further refinement of early childhood literacy current articles (within the last five years)
(n = 6). Articles published between the years specifically addressing AT, emergent literacy,
2002 to 2007 were reviewed to establish the and early childhood. Because of the specific
relevance to the special topic of the emergent nature of this review, there are limitations that
literacy and the use of AT. Only peer- should be noted. One possible limitation may
reviewed articles published in journals were be the omission of important articles written
used in this review. See Table 1 for a brief prior to 2002, or work not published in peer-
purpose and content analysis of articles reviewed journals (e.g., reports, conference
selected for review. papers, etc.). Another possible limitation may
be the exclusion of articles outside the
Relevance. An article was determined parameters of all three descriptors (i.e., AT,
relevant and was included if it was peer- emergent literacy, and early childhood). An
reviewed and published between 2002 and attempt to conduct an exhaustive search of
2007 and the primary focus of the article was literature was the ultimate goal; however,
related to AT in the areas of preschool, early there may have been additional search
literacy, or emergent literacy. Articles were techniques not explored. Only journal articles
excluded if (a) AT was only mentioned as a published in English were examined in this
consideration or a recommendation; (b) AT review. This resulted in a pool of only five
was demonstrated as a tool, but not one articles meeting the specific criteria for this
specifically targeting early or emergent review.
literacy; or (c) emergent literacy research was
conducted on children older than five years. Findings and Discussion
Article analysis. A content analysis was This section of the review includes a synthesis
generated to provide a summary of selected of the findings from five articles satisfying the
articles. The analysis was divided into selection criteria. Specifically, this section will
examining six categories (a) background provide an assessment of available research in
information (i.e., full citation, purpose of the field of AT and preschool children’s
study); (b) participant characteristics (i.e., emergent literacy development. This review
background characteristics of study investigated the following themes present in
participants, number not completing study the body of research: (a) lack of clear or
and why); (c) research design (i.e., design of poorly communicated conceptualizations of
the study, description of theory or model); (d) key terminology, (b) implementation barriers,
practice characteristics (i.e., independent and (c) limited research base.
variables; characteristics of the intervention
measures; treatment fidelity); (e) outcomes Conceptualization Problems
(i.e., outcome measures; how were they
measured; measurement of reliability or As stated previously, the intent of this review
validity); and (f) synthesis findings (i.e., how was to find articles that specifically addressed
are characteristics of the practice related to emergent literacy and AT within the context
the outcome; positive or negative outcomes; of preschool aged children’s development.
level of measurement used to describe the When examining the selected articles, there
practice and outcome). Results from the appeared to be a lack of or poorly
analysis are summarized in Table 1. communicated delineation of the terms
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‘emergent literacy’ and ‘AT.’ Differences in technology, resources and technical assistance
orientations with regard to these two key needed). These researchers reflected a
terms could lead to a convoluted marriage between emergent literacy and
conceptualization. technology with AT providing an avenue for
interaction and engagement with literacy.
In all of the articles reviewed the authors
noted that there was considerable work in the Interestingly, Beck (2002), in an article
area of emergent literacy; however, authors of published more for early childhood education
three articles did suggest that the term practitioners, narrowly defined emergent
emergent literacy had been limited only to literacy in both scope and validation of AT:
print-based materials. Marsh (2004) stated that “Emergent literacy is concerned with the early
the view of current definitions of emergent phases of literacy development, the period
literacy were too restrictive and needed to be between birth and the time when children
reconceptualized. Lankshear and Knobel read and write conventionally” (p. 44). Unlike
(2003) concurred with Marsh’s evaluation and the other articles reviewed, there was no clear
assertion that the acquisition of literacy is too assertion that technology should be
narrowly defined. All of these researchers considered in the conceptualization of
agree that literacy experiences should be emergent literacy.
viewed in a monolithic way by examining
emergent literacy with a broader approach and Another interesting finding related to the
within a variety of contexts. These researchers conceptualization of emergent literacy was
made a point to explain that they were that the articles in research journals seemed to
examining ‘techno-literacy,’ but did not clearly stress the need for incorporating technology
define the dimensions of such a term. Further, literacy within the construct of emergent
when these researchers introduced the term literacy. In contrast, the article in a
techno-literacy they may inadvertently practitioner friendly journal presented a very
generated a distinction between techno- traditional definition of emergent literacy and
literacy and emergent literacy where the terms AT, with AT not being considered as an
had been perceived as two different entities. integral part of an emergent literacy program.
There was no clearly operationalized
Hutinger, Bell, Daytner, and Johanson (2006) definition of emergent literacy across the
broadly conceptualized the term to articles reviewed. All of the ideas were related
encompass a wide array of skills and but there were slight, and possibly
behaviors. They demonstrated their broader unintended, variations in the
conceptualization by the scope of their conceptualization of emergent literacy across
outcome measures through examination of studies. A universal definition of the term
emergent literacy behaviors beyond simple emergent literacy is needed to include
print awareness and interactions with text. In behaviors for interacting with both print and
their three year longitudinal study, Hutinger et technology-based materials. In light of these
al. examined the emergent literacy growth of findings, it is evident that future research
preschool children at risk for or having would benefit from a consistent and global
disabilities (e.g., orientation to book, assessing description of what constitutes emergent
early writing development, child’s literacy behaviors taking into account the
communicative attempts); student behavioral advancements in technology and other
changes with regard to literacy (e.g. attending learning tools, such as digital and virtual
skills, interactivity, response to pictures); and learning.
teacher outcomes (e.g. increased comfort with
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The problems with the conceptualization of the technology itself rather than technology as
AT is slightly different than the a tool for learning.
conceptualization of emergent literacy.
Variations in the conceptualization of Barriers to Implementation
emergent literacy are often reflected across
researchers in the field (c.f., Beck, 2002; A majority of articles reviewed discussed
Neuman & Dickenson, 2001). In contrast, the possible barriers to using technology with
conceptualization of AT has benefited from a young children (Hutinger et al., 2006;
well-defined standard definition provided by Lankshear & Knobel, 2003; Marsh, 2004;
federal mandates. However, in Weikle & Hadadian, 2003). The most
implementation, variations in the common barrier identified in this review dealt
conceptualization of AT can occur from other with teacher perceptions, attitudes, and
professional, general educators, curriculum practices. Teachers play a significant role in
developers, and families. For example, the the implementation of technology in the
impetus for expanding access and educational classroom while parents were viewed as the
opportunities for all learners has resulted in a gatekeepers and implementers in the home
stronger examination of universal design for environment (Hutinger et al.). Studies reveal
learning (UDL) principles and its integration that teachers need training and technical
into classrooms. The concept of UDL has support to infuse AT into their classrooms.
blurred the once clean definition of AT. Given that technology seldom is implemented
Consequently, many persons both in and with young children in isolation, there is no
outside the field of AT and special education doubt that the teacher’s ability, confidence, as
view AT and UDL as synonymous entities. well as perceived usefulness of the technology
greatly influence the frequency and duration
To expound, many researchers in the field of of technology use (Hutinger et al.). As a result,
AT conceptualize AT as a continuum of teachers with greater levels of perceived
devices and strategies (Mistrett, Lane, & comfort with technology were also more likely
Ruffino, 2005). Other educators and to implement technology-enhanced activities
professionals tend to equate AT with more versus only viewing the computer as the only
expensive high-tech devices often overlooking source of technology (Hutinger et al.).
low-tech options; that is, sometimes
individuals of influence in a child’s education Weikle and Hadadian (2003) provided
may overlook effective low-tech devices and practical recommendations for parents and
may be dissuaded from investigating AT professionals to enhance literacy by using AT.
because of a perceived expense and training The authors emphasized that both parents
requirements (Ashton, 2000). This incorrect and professionals are hesitant and resistive to
conceptualization may be inadvertently acknowledge the importance of technology in
reinforced because many AT research articles the enhancement of emergent literacy skill
seem to focus more on high-tech options. development. It was also revealed that the
This was true for articles in this review: three lack of society’s acceptance of AT with the
articles dealt exclusively with high-tech youngest of learners does create a barrier to
(Hutinger et al., 2006; Lankshear & Knobel, implementation of possible successful
2003; Marsh, 2004); one focused on both intervention strategies.
high- and low-tech (Beck, 2002); and only one
article investigated low-tech resources (Weikle Interestingly, the identified barriers revolved
& Hadadian, 2003). AT can be incorrectly around socio cultural issues rather than
conceptualized when the focus is placed on practical concerns. For example, none of the
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Fall 2008, Vol.5, Num. 1
studies in this review suggested that funding, perspectives regarding the conceptualization
either positively or negatively, influenced AT of emergent literacy, technology, and AT in
and emergent literacy instruction. Likewise, early childhood education; (c) increased
technology itself was not identified as a collaboration, communication, and
barrier. investment of time and resources among key
stake holders regarding AT and its role in
Limited Research Base emergent literacy for young children; and (d)
heightened recognition of the socio cultural
This examination identified a recurring theme influences affecting technology and AT
that there is a limited amount of research integration in early childhood emergent
addressing AT, emergent literacy, and literacy programs and activities. Each of these
preschool children simultaneously. This is discussed in the following section.
paucity of research was addressed in some
manner within all articles reviewed. Lankshear Need for Empirical Research
and Knobel (2003) examined ‘new
technology’ as it relates to emergent literacy Technology is indeed an undisputable
and characterized the research in this area as presence in all aspects of life in contemporary
‘piecemeal’ and ‘hopelessly inconclusive.’ society today. In 2003, 91% of children in
nursery school through 12th grade (n = ~53
For this review, a concerted effort was made million) used computers and 59% (n = ~35
to locate scholarly articles in the areas of AT, million persons) used the Internet. The high
emergent literacy, and preschool children percentage of preschool-aged children in 2003
concomitantly. Given the criterion, the review that actively interacted with computers and
only yielded five peer reviewed articles in the computer related technologies (66%; n = ~3
past 5 years. One of the articles selected for million preschoolers) further accentuates the
analysis in this review was a review of research presence of technology in the lives of
from 1996 to 2002 (Lankshear & Knobel, individuals beginning at a very young age
2003). These researchers used similar (National Center for Educational Statistics
procedures implemented in this review and [NCES], 2005).
located only five articles. Therefore, over an
11-year period, only 11 articles were located Further evidence of the trend toward
which addressed the search descriptors. As increased technology integration on a very
previously discussed, much work continues to basic level is the continuing increase of
address emergent literacy skill acquisition as computers and their use in American schools.
well as the use of AT, though not in In 1998 the average public school contained
conjunction with each other at the preschool approximately 90 computers as compared to
level. approximately 154 computers in 2005.
Additionally, access to the Internet in
Outcomes and Benefits of AT instructional settings has increased from 51%
to 94% from 1998 to 2005 (NCES, 2008).
The premise of this literature review was that
meaningful integration of technology could To ensure full potential for students with
enhance emergent literacy for preschool disabilities from this increased access to
children. This review generated the following: computers and the Internet, AT is often an
a need for (a) more empirical research in the integral part of the instructional activity. As a
area of AT, emergent literacy, and early result, researchers must decipher the
childhood; (b) shared professional effectiveness of AT isolated from other
Assistive Technology Outcomes and Benefits / 99
Fall 2008, Vol.5, Num. 1
educational interventions (Fennema-Jansen, Increased Collaboration, Communication, and
Edyburn, Smith, Wilson, & Binion, 2007). Investment
Currently, initiatives are in place to gauge the
outcomes of AT in school settings (e.g., Increased collaboration, communication and
Project OATS; Fennema-Jansen et al.). While investment of time and resources among key
there are similarities in preschool children’s stake holders regarding AT and its role in
abilities, use, and needs a compared to older emergent literacy for young children is
children’s skill sets, an examination of essential. Lankshear and Knobel (2003)
appropriate AT tools and devices for asserted that few mainstream journals address
preschoolers is underexamined (Judge, 2006; technology in conjunction with emergent
Lankshear & Knobel, 2003). More AT literacy. It is critical that successful practices
projects such as Let’s Play be disseminated to those needing the
(http://letsplay.buffalo.edu/index.html) and information most (i.e., families and
similar initiatives are needed to provide a professionals). In order to provide key
foundation for future research. resources and proven approaches,
stakeholders must align technology and
Common Conceptual Framework strategies, while carefully documenting
outcomes. Through collaboration,
Research studies in the area of AT, emergent stakeholders bring about the best literacy
literacy, and preschool children that adhere to experiences and opportunities for
scientific rigor (e.g., replicable, empirically preschoolers with each lending their expertise
sound) and work in tandem with current and insight.
programs and practices provide insightful
information to chart new pathways for Recognize Socio Cultural Influences
learning. The process of establishing a
conceptual framework is currently reflected in Evidence-based practices and programs
the efforts of several states (e.g., Florida and promoting effective integration of technology
Georgia) to establish emergent literacy and AT with emergent literacy can be
curriculum standards for preschools. Another rendered ineffectual by extenuating socio
example is the National Educational cultural influences. For example, teachers who
Technology Standards for Students (NETS-S; are not comfortable with technology and do
International Society for Technology in not use technology in their personal lives may
Education, 2007) in grades PK-2 (ages 4-8). be resistant to integrating technology in
The next step in extending and refining the emergent literacy programs. In this case,
conceptualization of emergent literacy and AT teachers’ comfort levels determined the socio
with preschool children is to look across cultural environmental condition for the
published standards to identify commonalities children they were serving. Additional socio
and interrelatedness. This conceptualization cultural factors such as family beliefs,
allows for the development of measurable interaction patterns, gender, ethnicity, and
indicators for technology and emergent socioeconomic status (SES), can be involved
literacy competence in young children. A in determining effective integration practices.
common conceptual framework provides Further, it appears a catalyst for widespread
parameters for researchers, educators, and implementation of AT with young children
families. lies in addressing socio culture challenges
present in early childhood environments.
Assistive Technology Outcomes and Benefits / 100
Fall 2008, Vol.5, Num. 1
Conclusion Individuals with Disabilities Education Act
Amendments, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq.
Researchers and practitioners alike have (2004).
advocated that working on developing Individuals with Disabilities Education Act,
emergent literacy skills among young children 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et seq. (1990).
could help alleviate negative academic and Individuals with Disabilities Education
personal outcomes. As technology continues Improvement Act, 20 U.S.C. §§ 1400 et
to expand and grow, more AT, both low- and seq. (2004).
high-tech, will continue to be developed. International Society for Technology in
Therefore, incorporating technological Education. (2007). The ISTE national
advances should be a key component in educational technology standards (NETS•S) and
designing the most effective and innovative performance indicators for students. Retrieved
emergent literacy interventions. October 8, 2008, from
http://www.iste.org/Content/Navigation
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