ERIC EJ881328: African American Millennials: "A Profile of Promise"

2010·8.3 MB·English

by  ERIC

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Millennials
A Profile of Promise
by Hansel Burley, Lucy Barnard-Brak, Aretha Faye Marbley, and Christopher Deason

gifted child today 47
African American Millennials
Resilience refers to positive adaptation iors and opportunities in students’ ered, including individual, environ-
in the face of present or past adversity lives that help them adapt to new mental, and sociohistorical experiences.
(Wright & Matsen, 2005). It is the contexts (Luthar & Cicchetti, 2000). However, the APA report indicated that
“ordinary magic” that rises from the Typically, these factors relate directly the ethnic and cultural experiences of
minds of children and their families to success, like participation in college African American youth have been left
as they interact with their communi- preparation, working with a mentor, out of many of these studies. Therefore,
ties (Masten, 2001). Gonzales (2003) or taking part in internship programs. it is important to examine the resilience
defined three major components of Developmental assets also include ecology of students from different eth-
Resiliency Theory: risk factors, protec- behaviors like volunteering in the com- nicities and cultures who might benefit
tive factors, and developmental assets. munity and leading organizations, as from gifted education.
Risk factors include low socioeconomic well as possessing values like delay-
status, dropping out, participation ing gratification and valuing diversity Method
in violent activities, recent divorce, (Benson, Leffert, Scales, & Blyth,
neglect, poverty, teenage pregnancy, 1998). Finally, a key tenet of Resiliency The focus of this study was to cre-
and teenage parenthood. Protective Theory is a focus on what actually ate a descriptive profile of African
factors help reduce the impact of risk works in students’ lives, instead of American millennials who might ben-
factors, and they include support from focusing on what has not worked in efit from gifted education. We based
family, friends, teachers, and commu- their lives (e.g., poverty status, at-risk the selection of variables on Resiliency
nity (Mash & Wolfe, 2002). Gonzales behaviors, poor performance, and poor Theory (see Table 1) and on Renzulli’s
profiled these supportive relationships school environment). (1978) three-ring model of giftedness.
as having the following characteris- The American Psychological
tics: caring with high expectations, Association’s (APA) Task Force on Sample
a presence that produces a sense of Resilience and Strength in Black
belonging, and guidance focused on Children and Adolescents (2008) The source of data was the
increasing self-esteem. Developmental reported that increasingly the study of Educational Longitudinal Study of
assets are the third aspect of resilient resilience is being driven by ecological 2002 (ELS: 2002). To generate the
positive adaptation. These are behav- models that see resilience as multilay- ELS: 2002, the National Center for
Educational Statistics (NCES) sur-
Resilience
veyed 15,362 students in grade 10,
including 2,033 African American
refers to
students and 8,757 White students.
The sampling design for the ELS: 2002
was multilevel, with a stratified sample
positive adaptation in the face of
of schools selected first, then students
were randomly sampled from within
the school. Because our use of these
present or past adversity. It is the
data is descriptive, we report only fre-
quency counts and percentages; this
“ordinary magic” that rises from includes the total number of students
in all of the schools included in the
ELS: 2002 (see Table 2). The counts
the minds of children and their and percentages reported are weighted,
that is, adjusted so that they are fully
representative of the year 2001 popu-
families as they interact with lation of U.S. 10th graders, estimated
to be 3,439,489 based upon recent
Census data. The African Americans
their communities. in the sample made up approximately
14.4% of all students in the data set.
48 spring 2010 • vol 32, no 2
African American Millennials
The students in this report were born
Table 1
in the mid-1980s and were in the mid-
Resilience Variables From the Educational
dle of their high school experiences at
Longitudinal Study of 2002
the start of the new millennium—clas-
sic millennials. Risk/Protective Factors Protective Factors Outcomes
Family socioeconomic Student beliefs and Test performance
Instruments status expectations
Urbanicity of school Teacher opinions and Teacher recommendations
The NCES surveyed each of the observations
students about their educational
experiences, beliefs, and attitudes, and
Table 2
conducted surveys of one parent, two
School Profile—Urbanicity
teachers (one English and one math-
ematics), and one school administra- African American White
(n = 131,634) (n = 1,106,663)
tor about the students, their schools,
and the students’ learning experiences. Urban 49% 17%
They also tested the students in reading Suburban 37% 40%
and math to assess their ability in these Rural 14% 43%
domains. Math test items consisted of
Note. Values may not add up to 100 because of rounding.
items derived from the PISA (Program
for International Student Assessment)
study, the criteria for potential gift- expansive by including students who
assessments and covered arithme-
edness included proxies for Renzulli’s met any one of the above criteria.
tic, algebra, probability, and some
model of giftedness. With regard to To assess Resiliency Theory, we
advanced topics (Ingels, Pratt, Rogers,
above-average ability, we identified selected variables that related to risk
Siegel, & Stutts, 2005). Reading test
students who were in the highest quar- factors, protective factors, and develop-
items were derived from previous
tile on both mathematics and read- mental assets. The first group of vari-
National Assessment for Educational
ing standardized tests administered ables from the ELS: 2002 included risk
Progress (NAEP) and PISA assess-
and reported by NCES as possessing and protective factors like socioeco-
ments including items that covered
comprehension and synthesis of text above-average ability. Also, these stu- nomic status (SES) and the urbanicity
(Ingels et al., 2005). dents may have been enrolled in or a of the school (see Table 1). To depict
teacher may have recommended that students’ developmental assets, we
Selection of Variables to Analyze they enroll in an advanced placement chose variables that allowed students
class in addition to being in the high- to express their beliefs and expectations
This public data set did not have a est quartile. With regard to task com- about education. We also chose teacher
flag variable that indicated giftedness. mitment, students were selected based opinions and observations about the
Therefore, we used the data to iden- upon exhibited academic, leadership, same students. Test performance and
tify a set of students who might benefit or artistic involvement as defined by teacher recommendations were used
from gifted education. We chose a defi- questions in the NCES surveys. We as possible criteria for outcomes that
nition suggested by Renzulli (1978) as further defined those with leadership might indicate resilience.
the starting place for finding suitable and artistic qualities as those who
survey items that would be indica- reported participation in extracur- Results
tors of giftedness. Renzulli proposed ricular leadership activities or extra
that gifted behavior occurred when training in music, art, and drama as Students Identified With Potential
above-average intelligence or ability, indicative of task commitment and for Inclusion in Gifted Education
task commitment, and high creativ- also as defining those students who
ity interacted. The NCES data did not may be considered as creative. To allow Twenty-seven percent (n = 131,634)
report direct measures of intelligence for perspective, we included compari- of African American millennial students
or ability, task commitment, and cre- sons to White students who met the and 57% (n = 1,106,663) of White
continued on page ??
ativity. Therefore, for the current same criteria. We made our criteria millennial students met the criteria for
gifted child today 49
African American Millennials
of the students in schools where
Table 3
White students attended.
Teachers’ Opinion of Student
African American White Protective Factor: Teachers’
(n = 131,634) (n = 1,106,663)
Selected Characteristics and
Student works hard for grades 57.6% 66.7% Opinions of Students
(English)—yes
Recommended for AP/honors 27.9% 34.2%
On some characteristics, African
(English)—yes
American and White students’ teach-
Student works hard for grades 49.4% 68.6%
ers were similar, even in their opinions
(math)—yes
of their students (see Table 3). African
Recommended for AP/honors 13.0% 23.4%
American students’ English teachers
(math)—yes
averaged 13 years of teaching experi-
ence. White students’ English teachers
above-average ability, creativity, and schools participated in the survey. averaged 14 years of teaching experi-
task commitment as stated above. The These differences were noted: ences. For both groups, the average
African American sample consisted of • The schools where African years of math teaching experience was
52% female, and 50% of the White Americans attended were primarily 16. Additionally, for both groups 65%
sample was female. When the criteria suburban and urban, whereas White of the English teachers held degrees
were made more stringent by focus- students attended primarily rural in English. However, 54% of African
ing on only academic achievement or and suburban schools (see Table 2). American students had teachers who
above-average ability, 11% (n = 52,657) • Nearly 85% of African American had degrees in math as opposed to
of African Americans and 44% (n = students attended public schools, 63% of White students. Even though
916,616) of Whites met this criterion. and 74% of Whites attended pub- all students in our study met our cri-
These figures have been weighted to be lic schools. teria for above-average ability, African
nationally representative based upon American millennials were less likely
• For African Americans, 16%
figures from the 2000 U.S. Census. to be regarded as hardworking. Fifty-
of students in the schools they
eight percent of African American stu-
attended were involved in commu-
Risk/Protective Factor: Family dents’ English teachers regarded them
nity service projects compared to
Socioeconomic Status as working hard for grades in English
23% of the students in the schools
compared to 67% of White students.
attended by White students.
The average income for African When mathematics teachers’ opinions
• At the schools where African
American families in this sample was were considered, 49% of the teachers
Americans in the sample attended,
in the income category of $25,000 said that the African American stu-
10% of the students were involved
to $35,000. The average income dents work hard compared to 69% for
in dropout-prevention programs
for Whites in the sample was in the White students. African American stu-
compared to 5% at the schools
$50,000 to $75,000 income category. dents had fewer recommendations to
where White students attended.
The median income for Whites was Advanced Placement or honors courses.
• Twelve percent of the students in
higher than the 75th percentile for
the schools attended by African
African Americans. African Americans Developmental Assets: Beliefs,
also had much more variance in Americans participated in gang- Behaviors, and Expectations
prevention programs. In the
income, with the lowest incomes repre-
sented in the African American group. schools where White students Table 4 reports students who
attended, less than 1% (0.43%) of answered “strongly agree” to each sur-
Risk/Protective Factor: the students participated in gang- vey question. When questioned con-
Profile of Schools prevention programs. cerning beliefs about key academic
• In the schools where African behaviors, African Americans were
In the sample containing those Americans attended, 40% of the similar to Whites, with the notable
African Americans and White stu- students were in college prepara- exceptions of “reading is fun,” “math
dents identified with potential, 5,370 tory programs, compared to 52% is important,” “gets absorbed in read-
50 spring 2010 • vol 32, no 2
African American Millennials
ing,” and “people can learn to be
Table 4
good at math.” The two groups were
Key Academic Beliefs and
indistinguishable on the following
Behaviors—Strongly Agree
items of “math is fun,” “reads in spare
time,” and “you have to be born with African American White
(n = 131,634) (n = 1,106,663)
math ability.” Although fewer African
Americans strongly agreed that read- Reading is fun 11.4% 17.7%
ing is fun (11.4% vs. 17.7%), they had Math is fun 8.6% 6.0%
stronger, more positive beliefs than Reads in spare time 12.1% 15.8%
Whites that “people can learn to be
Gets absorbed in reading 17.1% 24.0%
good at math” (20.2% vs. 12.8%).
Math is important 15.8% 10.2%
When questioned about their life
People can learn to be good at math 20.2% 12.8%
values, African American students and
You have to be born with math ability 6.9% 5.7%
their White counterparts presented an
interesting mix of similarities and dif-
ferences. Both groups were strongly Table 5
positive about marriage (see Table Selected Personal Values—The Importance of . . .
5). However, more African American —Very Important
students believed that having money
African American White
was important (52.4% vs. 30.4%).
(n = 131,634) (n = 1,106,663)
Furthermore, African American stu-
Marrying the right person 71.7% 79.9%
dents regarded giving children better
Having lots of money 52.4% 30.4%
opportunities as more important than
their White counterparts. On the Having strong friendships 71.5% 87.0%
other hand, having strong friendships Giving children better opportunities 85.8% 73.3%
was more important to the Whites Working to correct inequalities 26.8% 13.1%
than to the African Americans. Being an expert in a field of work 78.5% 67.9%
Although both groups’ percentages
A good education 84.5% 83.5%
were low, African American students
viewed working to correct inequalities
as a more important value than White Table 6
students (26.8% vs. 13.1%). A large Career-Related Activities and Service
majority of both groups reported that
African American White
“being an expert in a field of work” (n = 131,634) (n = 1,106,663)
and “a good education” were very
Internship 8.9% 3.3%
important to them.
Job Shadowing 16.4% 13.4%
In profiling career-related activities
Mentoring 10.6% 3.7%
and service, African American students
Community Service 20.4% 23.4%
appeared to have more experience with
internships and mentoring opportu-
nities, exceeding Whites in choos-
would get in school, African Americans slightly higher percentages (29% vs.
ing these types of opportunities (see
were indistinguishable from Whites, 22%) of Whites expected to obtain a
Table 6). Both African Americans and
with 37% of African Americans plan- master’s degree. African American par-
Whites had similar participation rates
ning on graduating from college and ents’ expectations outstripped those of
in job shadowing (16.4% vs. 13.4%)
36% of Whites saying the same. White parents, with 39% desiring that
and community service (20.4% vs.
23.4%). However, while a higher percentage their children obtain a Ph.D., M.D.,
When asked about their academic of African Americans (27% vs. 22%) or some degree above the master’s
expectations, the groups were similar. expected to obtain a Ph.D., M.D., or degree. Only 21% of Whites had the
continued on page ??
When asked how far they thought they some degree above the master’s degree, same expectations for their offspring.
gifted child today 51
African American Millennials
These high expectations are tem- sidered. This drop indicates that larger tinued to date. We found the same
pered by the finding that 67% of percentages of African Americans might trend among these students using our
African Americans had a computer in be identified as gifted if leadership and expansive definition of potential gift-
the home compared to 91% of Whites. artistic endeavors were considered as edness. Perhaps the core problem is
Also, 61% of African Americans had opposed to only academic achieve- not in the students, but how theorists,
home access to the Internet compared ment. These findings support the work government, and educational agencies
with 87% of Whites. Interestingly, of Bonner, Jennings, Marbley, and define giftedness.
nearly double the percentage of Brown (2008) in their study of the fac- As a marker for achievement risk,
African Americans participated in tors in secondary school context that no factor surpasses SES, with students
vocational-technical programs (12% leads to the underrepresentation of from poor families consistently per-
v. 6%) when compared to White stu- African Americans in gifted programs. forming less well than those students
dents. Sixty-two percent of African For African American males, these who are from wealthier backgrounds
(Milne & Plourde, 2006). Across
This drop indicates that larger percentages of numerous outcomes (e.g., emotional,
physical, educational), Felner (2006)
African Americans might be identified as gifted if names poverty as the greatest risk fac-
tor of all—historically and currently. In
leadership and artistic endeavors were considered our study, across all categories of ethnic
group and gender, total family income
as opposed to only academic achievement. appeared to be related to potential
giftedness, with fewer percentages of
students with potential in the lower
Americans were in college prepara- authors named several factors as cul- income categories and higher percent-
tory programs compared with 65% prits, including low test scores, lack of ages of students with potential in the
of Whites. Finally, as an updated note teacher referral, tracking, substandard upper income categories. Thus, we can
on this ELS cohort in 2006, Bozick, classes, and poor classroom learning speculate that this difference between
Lauff, and Wirt (2007) reported that environments. African American and White students
62.6% of African American students may be driven by socioeconomic sta-
had attempted study at a college or Risk Factors tus. In one example, 9% of African
university compared with 83.3% of Americans had total family incomes
all White students. For those students Together, structural issues at the between $75,000 and $100,000 com-
who had discontinued their postsec- school and psycho-social issues seem pared to 16% for Whites. This trend
ondary education, financial reasons to conspire to reduce the percentages continued with African American stu-
were the most named factors. For a of African American students identi- dents dominating less wealthy catego-
future study, the authors will attempt fied as gifted. In fact, using Renzulli’s ries and Whites dominating wealthier
to secure follow-up data to expand the model, our results closely mirror those categories. The logical extension of this
study of outcomes for these students. of Donovan and Cross (2002) in a finding is that wealth, or the lack of it,
report that used data from the Office may be related to the underidentifica-
for Civil Rights collected in 1998. tion of minorities for gifted programs.
Discussion
They reported that African Americans Because both groups met the same cri-
and Conclusions
comprised 8.6% of children placed teria for potential, it seems safe to con-
in gifted programs and were less than clude that African American do more
Using our broad definition, 27% of half as likely as White students to be with less, which may be a function of
African Americans and 57% of Whites selected for a gifted program. a variety of variables.
met at least one criterion for potential Donovan and Cross (2002) indi-
giftedness and were selected for our cated that this trend of underrepre- Protective Factors
study. However, the percent of African sentation of African Americans and
Americans meeting the criteria dropped overrepresentation of Whites in gifted In terms of school and teacher opin-
to 11%, a 16% reduction, when only programs was evident in 1976 when ions, two potential protective factors, we
math and reading proficiency were con- data were first collected and has con- found differences. African Americans
52 spring 2010 • vol 32, no 2
African American Millennials
attended predominately urban schools, with sources of distress in such a way American students worked less hard for
while Whites attended overwhelmingly that is availing or advantageous to the grades than White students. However,
suburban and rural schools. Combining individual. Additionally, resiliency even if this is true, African Americans
the SES categories with this finding often is thought of as additive, so in still met the criteria for potential
about the schools supports Ogbu and our study, one can picture a model giftedness. Teachers may need addi-
Stern’s (2001) much praised and criti- for resilience as SES + Teachers and tional training to help them identify
cized depictions of academic disengage- Schools + Developmental Assets. For and capitalize on potential gifts and
ment resulting from caste-like systems many African American students, SES talents of African American children
in American society. From this, Ogbu represents a negative or risk factor, but (Harmon, 2002). From this study,
and Stern would suggest that African their developmental assets are generally it was clear that African American
Americans in this group are walled by positive and little different from their students saw making money, giving
poverty and urbanicity. Even though White counterparts. The malleable fac- children opportunities, and working
their teachers may have similar back- tors left are the beliefs and expectations to correct inequalities as important.
grounds, their opinions of student of the teachers and schools. Project-oriented instruction related
effort and ability appear to be signifi- to these types of values should pique
cantly different. Clearly, this is an area Implications for Practices students’ interest and enrich their edu-
requiring further study. cational experiences. Projects aimed at
students’ home community improve-
Even though the African American
Developmental Assets ment should be particularly attractive.
millennials met the criteria that might
This type of curriculum change in an
merit inclusion in gifted education,
When looking at beliefs and behav- urban setting also could have a positive
they had less family income and were
iors that reflect developmental assets, consequence of helping nongifted stu-
clearly more urban. However, their
African American students and Whites dents to perform better, even helping
untapped potential can be seen in
were similar. Interestingly, African them to emulate the achievement and
their values and behaviors, despite
Americans were more inclined to aspirations of exemplary students. In
these potential stressors. Teachers need
believe that working hard would lead fact, the goal of a school that knows it
to nurture this ability to recover from
to achievement in math. In terms of has potentially gifted African American
distress and support the aspirations of
personal values, the two groups were students should be to develop more
these students. That is, teachers and
indistinguishable, except when asked of them and move them to the next
schools have the opportunity to pow-
about the importance of money. More level. Gifted instruction could follow
erfully shape learning environments
African Americans agreed that having this logic by focusing on the strengths
so these students may excel. Teachers,
lots of money was important; however, of students who do not meet formal
schools, and educational agencies
this makes sense when one considers gifted criteria and providing them
need to rethink placement strategies
that African Americans were generally with targeted gifted programming
for gifted programs. New strategies
poorer. Finally, despite SES status, that could lead to admittance into
school characteristics, and teacher could include clear and consistent traditional gifted programs. The idea
opinions, African American students information for students and parents is to groom students who have poten-
were more apt to be involved in job- about the advantages of being in a tial for gifted instruction. This tar-
related activities like internships and gifted program. Then, programming geted programming will give teachers
mentoring. needs to be in place to help students and counselors the space to observe
Based upon these risk factors, get ready or to nudge them into these directly student behavior and achieve-
protective factors, and developmen- gifted programs. ment, to build rapport with students
tal assets, we consider that the great Ford and Harris (1999) recom- and parents, to help them plan, and to
promise of African American millenni- mended a multicultural gifted cur- push students in attempting increas-
als is in their capacity for resilience. To riculum for gifted African American ingly difficult academic challenges.
reiterate, resilience “refers to patterns students. Such a curriculum should Not only would such a program try to
of positive adaptation in the context of provide both challenge and affirma- increase students’ access to resources
significant risk or adversity” (Masten tion of African American students’ like the computers, it would be a time
& Powell, 2003, p. 4). Resilience also needs and goals. For example, in this where teachers could become a bet-
continued on page ??
may be likened to the ability to cope study, teachers indicated that African ter resource for students in terms of
gifted child today 53
African American Millennials
building confidence and appropriate in Black Children and Adolescents. Harmon, D. (2002). They won’t teach me:
academic efficacy. (2008). Resilience in African American The voices of gifted African American
This last point cannot be stressed children and adolescents: A vision for inner-city students. Roeper Review, 24,
enough. Bonner (2001) found that a optimal development. Washington, DC: 68–79.
gifted African American student who APA. Retrieved from http://www.apa. Harper, S. R. (2006). Peer support for
org/pi/families/resources/task-force/ African American male college achieve-
attended a predominately White post-
resilience-af-am.aspx ment: Beyond internalized racism and
secondary institution felt reticent at
Benson, P., Leffert, N., Scales, P., & the burden of “acting White.” The Jour-
displaying confidence in his academic
Blyth, D. (1998). Beyond the “village” nal of Men’s Studies, 14, 337–348.
achievement. However, a gifted student
rhetoric: Creating health communities Ingels, S. J., Pratt, D. J., Rogers, J. E.,
at a historically Black college or univer-
for children and adolescents. Applied Siegel, P. H., & Stutts, E. S. (2005).
sity readily displayed confidence in his Developmental Science, 2, 138–159. Education Longitudinal Study of 2002:
academic ability. This student pointed Bonner, F. (2001). Gifted African American Base-year to first follow-up data file
to academic and social support from male college students: A phenomenological documentation (NCES 2006–344).
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construct of resilience: Implications
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for interventions and social policies.
chances of finding peer connections Brown, L. (2008). Capitalizing on lead-
Developmental and Psychopathology, 12,
and validation (Harper, 2006). The ership capacity: Gifted African Ameri-
857–885.
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Mash, E. J., & Wolfe, D. A. (2002).
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Masten, A. (2001). Ordinary magic:
Bozick, R., Lauff, E., & Wirt, J. (2007).
ment, where these students may feel Resilience processes and development.
Educational longitudinal study of 2002
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(ELS: 2002): A first look at the initial
and participate in school activities. In Masten, A., & Powell, J. (2003). A resil-
postsecondary experiences of the high
other words, the gifted program could ience framework for research, policy,
school sophomore class of 2002. Wash-
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ington, DC: Institute for Education
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Sciences, National Center for Educa-
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tion Statistics, U.S. Department of
1–28). Cambridge, England: Cam-
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Milne, A., & Plourde, L. (2006). Factors
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of a low-SES household: What aids aca-
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tional Psychology, 33, 183–193.
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schools can increase student chances of hood and adolescence: A transactional- and intellectual development. In R. J.
success, even while they change their ecological approach to understanding Sternberg & E. L. Grigorenko (Eds.),
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