ERIC EJ877747: Language and Cultural Maintenance of Hawai'i-Born Nisei

2007·0.13 MB·English

by  ERIC

College of Education v University of Hawai‘i at Mänoa 1
Language and Cultural Maintenance
of Hawai‘i-born Nisei
by Hiro�i Yoshida
Introduction the Center. Finally, I met some Nisei who had lived in Shin�achi
The purpose of this paper is to consider how Nisei, the second and Yashiji�achou. I also had several opportunities to gather
generation of Japanese iimmmmiiggrraannttss,, iiinnn HHHiiilllooo ooonnn ttthhheee iiissslllaaannnddd ooofff HHHaaawwwaaaiii‘‘‘‘iiiii information by interviewing some Nikkei who possessed a lot of
have maintained their Japanese cultural and linguistic skills. Issei knowledge about these communities. These ten Nisei who were
refers to the first-generation Japanese AAmmeerriiccaannss aaannnddd Nisei to the kind enough to share tthheeiirr llliiifffeee hhhiiissstttooorrriiieeesss wwwiiittthhh mmmeee aaarrreee ttthhheee cccooorrreee
second-generation. Nikkei refers generally to people of Japanese informants of my research study. Thheee rrreeesssuuullltttsss ooofff ttthhhiiisss rrreeessseeeaaarrrccchhh wwweeerrreee
ancestry. A ssuubb--ggrroouupp ccaalllleedd Kibei Nisei includes people who were compiled for my master’’sss ttthhheeesssiiisss aaannnddd iiinnncccllluuudddeee mmmaaapppsss ttthhhaaattt rrreeeppprrreeessseeennnttteeeddd
born on the UUSS mmmaaaiiinnnlllaaannnddd ooorrr iiinnn HHHaaawwwaaaiii‘‘‘‘iiiii aaaaannnnnddddd tttttthhhhhheeeeeennnnnn wwwwwwweeeeeeennnnnnnttttttt tttttttooooooo JJJJJJJaaaaaaapppppppaaaaaaannnnnnn iiiiiiinnnnnnn what these Japanese communities looked like, and how Japanese
their formative years. AAss aaa rrrreeeessssuuuulllltttt,,,,, ttttthhhhhiiiiisssss lllllaaaaatttttttttteeeeerrrrr gggggrrrrrooooouuuuuppppp bbbbbeeeeecccccaaaaammmmmeeeee mmmmmooooorrrrreeeee immigrants lived there.
fluent in Japanese than in English,, aanndd tthheeyy tteenndd ttoo ssppeeaakk JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee While conducting research, I kept wondering why these Nisei
better than other Nisei. This paper deals oonnllyy wwwiiittthhh Nisei and not the could still speak Japanese so fluently in spite of the limited use of
Kibei Nisei. Japanese that they seemed to make in their daily lives. These Nikkei
At the bbeeggiinnnniinngg ooofff mmmyyy rrreeessseeeaaarrrccchhh,,, mmmyyy iiinnnttteeerrreeessstttsss wwweeerrreee fffooocccuuussseeeddd had experienced many difficult circumstances, especially during the
on the lives of Japanese immigrants in Japanese communities in war period, when the use of Japanese had been banned. How had
Hilo. Although a large numbers of studies have been conducted they retained their Japanese language abilities?
on Japanese immigrants in Hawai‘‘iii,,, mmmooosssttt ooofff ttthhheeemmm fffooocccuuusss ooonnn I hypothesized that there were some cciirrccuummssttaanncceess ttthhhaaattt
the island of Oahu. Suurrpprriissiinnggllyy,,, fffeeewww ssstttuuudddiiieeesss hhhaaavvveee sssooo fffaaarrr bbbeeeeeennn allowed them to use tthheeiirr JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee... HHHooowwweeevvveeerrr,,, III cccooouuulllddd nnnooottt,,, aaattt fififirrrsssttt,,,
conducted with the Japanese immigrants on the island of Hawai‘‘iii... find any evidence that would explain how they had been able
In addition, research studies have tended to focus on the Nisei to keep their language and cultural knowledge alive. I needed,
soldiers during World War II or the lives of Japanese immigrants therefore, to look closely at individual life histories to find the
in plantation villages,, aaannnddd tttthhhheeeeyyyy hhhhhaaaaavvvvveeeee iiiiigggggnnnnnooooorrrrreeeeeddddd ttttthhhhheeeee eeeeexxxxxpppppeeeeerrrrriiiiieeeeennnnnccccceeeee ooooofffff reasons.
Japanese immigrants’’ wwwhhhooo llliiivvveeeddd iiinnn tttthhhheeee tttttooooowwwwwnnnnnsssss..... NNNNNeeeeeeeeeedddddllllleeeeessssssssss tttttooooo sssssaaaaayyyyy,,,,, In this paper, I will first provide a hhiissttoorryy ooofff ttthhheeessseee JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee
these significant issues aarree nnoott oonnllyy iimmppoorrttaanntt aaacccaaadddeeemmmiiicccaaallllllyyy bbbuuuttt immigrant communities in Hilo. Next, I will describe my research
are of value in presenting a more complete picture of the Japanese- findings. I will then offer an analysis and explanation using the
American experience in Hawai‘‘iii... III bbbeeellliiieeevvveee ssstttrrrooonnnggglllyyy ttthhhaaattt iiittt iiisss “rreewwaarrdd ssyysstteemm””” tttthhhheeeeoooorrrryyyy pppprrrrooooppppoooosssseeeedddd bbbbyyyy JJJJoooosssshhhhuuuuaaaa AAAA.... FFFFiiiisssshhhhmmmmaaaannnn....2 I will
important to give a clear idea of the lives of Japanese immigrants in conclude with some comments on the Nisei use of Japanese and the
towns as well as their experiences during the war and in plantation special Japanese culture they uupphhhooolllddd...
villages. My rreesseeaarrcchh iiisss bbbaaassseeeddd ooonnn iiinnnttteeerrrvvviiieeewwwsss wwwiiittthhh Nisei whom I have
met. I recognize that there are Nisei who do not want to speak
Methodology and fieldwork Japanese nor participate in Japanese events and who are less ffaammiill--
iar wwiitthh ttthhheeeiiirrr JJJJaaaappppaaaannnneeeesssseeee rrrroooooooottttssss.... TTTThhhhuuuussss,,,, IIII ddddoooo nnnnooootttt iiiinnnntttteeeennnndddd ttttoooo ggggeeeennnneeeerrrraaaalllliiiizzzzeeee mmmmyyyy
Between 2003 and 2005, I was able to visit Hilo five times
findings to all Nisei in Hilo.
to investigate tthhee JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee cccooommmmmmuuunnniiitttiiieeesss ooofff Shin�achi and
Yashiji�achou.1 UUssuuaallllyy,, III ssstttaaayyyeeeddd ttthhheeerrreee fffooorrr tttwwwooo ooorrr ttthhhrrreeeeee wwweeeeeekkksss aaattt
The Communities of Japanese immigrants
a time, except ffoorr ttthhheee fififirrrsssttt vvviiisssiiittt wwwhhheeennn III ssstttaaayyyeeeddd fffooorrr ooonnnlllyyy ooonnneee wwweeeeeekkk...
Of course, these communities do not exist any more because in Hilo:
of tsunamis in 1946 and in 1960. However, I was able to meet
numerous Nikkei who are ssttiillll llliiivvviiinnnggg iiinnn HHHiiilllooo... III wwwaaasss aaaallllssssoooo aaaaabbbbbllllleeeee tttttooooo Yashijimachou and Shinmachi
join various parties and events and this allowed me to meet as Towards the end of the nineteeennnttthhh ccceeennntttuuurrryyy,,, JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee pppeeeooopppllleee
many Nikkei as nneecceessssaarryy ffoorr mmyy ssttuuddyy... SSSuuurrrppprrriiisssiiinnnggglllyyy,,, ttthhheee yyyooouuunnngggeeerrr started to travel across the Pacific Ocean as immigrants. They
generations, such as third and fourth generations of Nikkei have set off for many destinations in North and Soouuuttthhh AAAmmmeeerrriiicccaaa... MMMaaannnyyy
very little knowledge about tthheessee ooollldddeeerrr cccooommmmmmuuunnniiitttiiieeesss ooofff Shin�achi traveled to Hawai‘‘iii tttooo fififinnnddd wwwooorrrkkk iiinnn ttthhheee ppplllaaannntttaaatttiiiooonnnsss... TTThhheee mmmaaajjjooorrriiitttyyy ooofff
and Yashiji�achou. these people were from tthhee HHHiiirrrooossshhhiiimmmaaa,,, YYYaaammmaaaggguuuccchhhiii,,, aaannnddd OOOkkkiiinnnaaawwwaaa
Fortunately, I was able to receive considerable support from prefecturess...3 They left Japan to look for better lives—many of
Professor Honda of the University of Hawai‘‘iii... PPPrrrooofffeeessssssooorrr HHHooonnndddaaa them hoping to save money by working hard. After arriving in
is president of the HHaawwaaii‘‘ii JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee CCCeeennnttteeerrr iiinnn HHHiiilllooo aaannnddd tttthhhhrrrroooouuuugggghhhh Hawai‘‘iii,,, mmmooosssttt ooofff ttthhheeessseee iiimmmmmmiiigggrrraaannntttsss ssstttaaarrrttteeeddd tttooo wwwooorrrkkk aaattt ttthhheee bbbiiiggg
his kind help, I was able to participate in some of the activities of sugar plantations. The contract period for the plantation was
2 Educational Perspectives v Volume 0 v Number 1
normally three years. After theiirr cccooonnntttrrraaacccttt hhhaaaddd eeexxxpppiiirrreeeddd,,, aaa fffeeewww ooofff members. In Hilo alone, ninety-six ppeeooppllee wwweeerrreee kkkiiilllllleeeddd...8 It was
these immigrants went back to Japan, but others remained at the an unexpected and cruel ooccccuurrrreennccee fffooorrr pppeeeooopppllleee wwwhhhooo wwweeerrreee fififinnnaaallllllyyy
plantation villages, while others chose to move to the mainland getting their lives back together after the war. It was a hard struggle,
of the United Sttaatteess... SSSooommmeee wwweeerrreee aaabbbllleee tttooo fififinnnddd wwwooorrrkkk ooouuutttsssiiidddeee ooofff ttthhheee but people found the strength to carry on and rebuild their old
plantations iinn ssuucchh ttoowwnnss aass HHHiiilllooo...4 communities.
Early immigrant groups iinn HHiilloo llliiivvveeeddd iiinnn ttthhheee ddddoooowwwwnnnnttttoooowwwwnnnn aaaaarrrrreeeeeaaaaa,,,,, In 11996600,, aass ppeeooppllee wweerree bbeeggiinnnniinngg ttoo ppuutt tthhee nniigghhttmmaarree ooff
where a number of other ethnic groups—Caucasian American, 1946 behind them, another tsunami struck Hilo with aa ssiimmiillaarr
Chinese, and Portuguese were already established. By the bbeeggiinnnniinngg deadly force.9 It was because of this sseeccoonndd ssstttrrriiikkkeee aaagggaaaiiinnnsssttt HHHiiilllooo ttthhhaaattt
of twentieth century, the Japanese were the majority ethnic group legislation was enacted to create a green zone as a barrier against
in the coastal areas.5 Many of them lived inside or near downtown. future tsunamis. The people who had lived there were required
As more and more Japanese kept moving into these areas, Japanese to relocate. Yashiji�achou and Shin�achi were two of the areas
communities gradually took shape close to the ddoowwnnttoowwnn aaarrreeeaaa... hardest hit by the giant waves, and these devastated communities
Japanese immigrants soon started tthheeiirr ooowwwnnn bbbuuusssiiinnneeesssssseeesss... TTThhheeerrreee wwweeerrreee along the coast hhaavvee vvaanniisshheedd,, rreeppllaacceedd bbyy aaa gggooolllfff cccooouuurrrssseee aaannnddd aaaa
grocery ssttoorreess,, ttooffuu sshhooppss,, bbaarrbbeerrsshhooppss,, rreessttaauurraannttss,, hhootteellss,,, aaaannnndddd parking area.
theaters. Othheerrss wwwooorrrkkkeeeddd aaasss fififissshhheeerrrmmmeeennn,,, cccaaarrrpppeeennnttteeerrrsss,,, aaannnddd sssttteeevvveeedddooorrreeesss...
Two major Japanese areas ddeevveellooppeedd... TTThhheee fififirrrsssttt wwwaaasss fffooorrrmmmeeeddd iiinnn ttthhheee Introducing Two NNiisseeii 10
area of Waiääkkkeeeaaa,,, lllooocccaaattteeeddd iiinnn ttthhheee sssooouuuttthhheeerrrnnn pppaaarrrttt ooofff HHHiiilllooo... AAAlllttthhhooouuuggghhh I would like to introduce two of the Nisei who were the sub-
its official name was Waiääkkkeeeaaa TTTToooowwwwnnnn,,,,, JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee pppppeeeeeooooopppppllllleeeee cccccaaaaalllllllllleeeeeddddd jects of my study. One grew up in Shin�achi and the other grew up
it YYashiji�achou, wwhhiicchh mmmeeeaaannnsss ““““ttttthhhhheeeee cccccooooocccccooooonnnnnuuuuutttttsssss-----iiiiissssslllllaaaaannnnnddddd tttttooooowwwwwnnnnn”””””” iiiiiiinnnnnnn in Yashiji�achou. Both of them speak fluent Japanese.
Japanese.6 The second area was formed between the downtown and My first informant was Mr. Yoshirou Inoue. He was born
the Yasshhhiiijjjiii���aaaccchhhooouuu area. This area was called Shin�achi, meaning ““aaa in 1918 and grew up in Shin�achi. Like many other Japanese
new town..”” TTThhheee nnnaaammmeee ooofff Shin�achi was tthhee oooffffifificcciiiaaalll nnnaaammmeee... HHHooowwweeevvveeerrr,,, immigrants to Hawai‘‘iii,,, hhhiiisss ffffaaaatttthhhheeeerrrr cccccaaaaammmmmeeeee tttttooooo ttttthhhhheeeee iiiiissssslllllaaaaannnnndddddsssss fififififirrrrrsssssttttt,,,,, aaaaaannnnnndddddd
during World War IIII,,, ttthhheeessseee JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee nnnaaammmeeesss,,,, aaaassss wwwweeeellllllll aaaassss mmmmaaaannnnyyyy nnnnaaaammmmeeeessss then hhiiss mmootthheerr ccaammee aass aa ppiiccttuurree bbrriiddee.. BBootthh ooff tthheemm wweerree ffrroomm
for streets and parks,, wwweeerrreee rrreeeqqquuuiiirrreeeddd tttooo bbbeee ccchhhaaannngggeeeddd... BBBuuuttt iiinnn ssspppiiittteee ooofff Fukuoka pprreeffeeccttuurree... FFFooorrr ttthhhiiisss gggeeennneeerrraaatttiiiooonnn,,, fififinnndddiiinnnggg aaa pppaaarrrtttnnneeerrr wwwiiittthhh
these official demands, Shin�achi somehow survived in use. the same rreelliiggiioonn wwwaaasss iiiimmmmppppoooorrrrttttaaaannnntttt..... TTTTThhhhheeeeeyyyyy fififififirrrrrsssssttttt llllliiiiivvvvveeeeeddddd iiiiinnnnn aaaaa ppppplllllaaaaannnnntttttaaaaatttttiiiiiooooonnnnn
village, but the family moved to Shin�achi later. Mr. Inoue began
World War IIIIII aaannnddd ���aaapppaaannneeessseee IIImmmmmmiiigggrrraaannntttsss his education in JJaappaanneessee lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee aaattt aaannn eeeaaarrrlllyyy aaagggeee... AAAfffttteeerrr eeennnttteeerrriiinnnggg
The war was a particularly difficult experience for Japanese Waiääkkkeeeaaa EEEllleeemmmeeennntttaaarrryyy SSSccchhhoooooolll,,, hhheee ssstttaaarrrttteeeddd tttooo ssstttuuudddyyy JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee aaattt aaa
immigrants in Hilo. Fortunately, the majority of them were able Buddhist church.
to stay in their own homes and many of them continued their He joined the National Guards and then served iinn WWWooorrrlllddd WWWaaarrr
businesseess uuunnndddeeerrr ttthhheee mmmaaarrrtttiiiaaalll lllaaawww ttthhhaaattt wwwaaasss dddeeeccclllaaarrreeeddd aaattt ttthhheee ooouuutttbbbrrreeeaaakkk II as a member of tthhee 111000000ttthhh BBBaaattttttaaallliiiooonnn... HHHeee rrreeetttuuurrrnnneeeddd tttooo HHHiiilllooo aaafffttteeerrr
of the war. Thus, compared to many Japanese immigrants on the the war,, aanndd bbeeffoorree ttthhheee 111999444666 tttsssuuunnnaaammmiii ttthhhaaattt dddeeevvvaaassstttaaattteeeddd Shin�achi.
mainland who were almost all sent to concentration camps, the He survived, but other family members were not so fortunate. He
Japanese immigrants in Hilo lived under better circumstances. lost his parents, one of his nephews,, aaannnddd aaa nnniiieeeccceee... NNNNoooowwwwaaaaddddaaaayyyyssss hhhheeee
Of course, many of the stories I heard told of tragic situations. participates in tthhee aaaccctttiiivvviiitttiiieeesss ooofff HHHaaawwwaaaiii‘‘‘‘iiiii JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee CCCCCeeeeennnnnttttteeeeerrrrr,,,,, aaaaannnnnddddd bbbbbeeeeecccccaaaaauuuuussssseeeee
In one case, one of my iinnffoorrmmaannttss sseeerrrvvvveeeedddd aaaaasssss aaaaa mmmmmmeeeeeemmmmmmbbbbbbeeeeeerrrrrr ooooooofffffff ttttttthhhhhhheeeeeee of his fluency in Japanese and hhiiss vvveeerrryyy fffrrriiieeennndddlllyyy,,,, oooooouuuuuuttttttggggggooooooiiiiiinnnnnngggggg ccccccchhhhhhhaaaaaaarrrrrrraaaaaaacccccccttttttteeeeeeerrrrrrr,,,,,,,,
100th Battalion and went to fifigghhtt iiinnn EEEuuurrrooopppeee... IIInnn aaaannnnooootttthhhheeeerrrr cccccaaaaassssseeeee,,,,, ttttthhhhheeeee he ccoonnttrriibbuutteess ppoossiittiivveellyy ttoo tthhee vviissiittoorr eexxppeerriieennccee aaannnddd tttooo ttthhheee wwweeelll---
father of my informant was sent to a concentration camp on the come that ppeeooppllee ffrroomm JJaappaann eeennnjjjoooyyy wwwhhheeennn ttthhheeeyyy vvviiisssiiittt ttthhheee ccceeennnttteeerrr....
US mmaaiinnllaanndd.. OOOnnneee iiiinnnnffffoooorrrrmmmmaaaannnntttt lllloooosssstttt hhhheeeerrrr hhhhuuuussssbbbbaaaannnndddd dddduuuurrrriiiinnnngggg tttthhhheeee wwwwaaaarrrr.... The ootthheerr ssuubbjjeecctt ooff mmyy ssttuuddyy iiss MMss.. KKiimmiiyyoo HHiiggaasshhii.. SShhheeee
Unfortunately, she could not prepare a proper funeral as there were was born in 1923 in Yashiji�achou. Allttthhhooouuuggghhh hhheeerrr pppaaarrreeennntttsss cccaaammmeee tttooo
no monks in Hilo, and it was strictly banned for more than ten Hilo separately, they were both from Yamaguchi prefecture. Her
Japanese ttoo gggaaattthhheeerrr tttooogggeeettthhheeerrr iiiinnnn ooooonnnnneeeee ppppplllllaaaaaccccceeeee..... father was a carpenter. Heerrr mmmooottthhheeerrr hhhaaaddd rrruuunnn aaa tttooofffuuu ssshhhoooppp fififirrrsssttt,,, ttthhheeennn aaa
The Japanese in Hilo were also prohibited to speak Japanese general store in Yashiji�achou. Shheee aaatttttteeennndddeeeddd aaa JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee
in public, and Japanese schools were shut down. My informants school in Yashiji�achou, called Yahiji�a Nippongo Gakkou. Shheee
remember how quiet it was inside the buses back then, as many recalled many stories of Yashiji�achou and was willing to share
Japanese immigrants were not able to speak English. They did,, them with me.
however, ssppeeaakk JJaappaanneessee aatt hhoommee.. At present, she works as a volunteer for tthhee HHHaaawwwaaaiii‘‘‘‘iiiii JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee
Center answeriinngg ttteeellleeeppphhhooonnneee cccaaallllllsss aaannnddd hhhheeeellllppppiiiinnnngggg vvvvviiiiisssssiiiiitttttooooorrrrrsssss..... BBBBBeeeeecccccaaaaauuuuussssseeeee ooooofffff
The TTssuunnaammiiss oo���� 11��44���� aanndd 11�������� her fluency in Japanese and vivid memories of early life in Hilo, she
On ttthhheee fifififirrrrsssstttt ooooffff AAAApppprrrriiiillll,,,,, 111111999999444444666666,,,,,, AAAAAApppppprrrrrriiiiiillllll FFFFFFoooooooooooollllllssssss DDDDDDaaaaaayyyyyy,,,,,, aaaaaa mmmmmmaaaaaajjjjjjoooooorrrrrr ttttttssssssuuuuuunnnnnnaaaaaammmmmmiiiiii has been able to contribute a lot to the center and ttoo iittss vvviiisssiiitttoooorrrrssss.....
hit Hawai‘‘iii... IIIttt dddeeevvvaaassstttaaattteeeddd ttthhheee cccoooaaassstttaaalll aaarrreeeaaa ooofff HHHiiilllooo... IIIttt ssswwweeepppttt
buildings, roads, and people aawwaayy... AAAlllmmmooosssttt aaallllll ooofff mmmyyy iiinnnfffooorrrmmmaaannntttsss Findings and analysis
suffered personally from this ddiissaasstteerr...7 Some of them lost family The findings of this study fall into four major categories: (1)
College of Education v University of Hawai‘i at Mänoa 
the age ooff ssuubbjjeeccttss aanndd ttthhheee aaacccqqquuuiiisssiiitttiiiooonnn ooofff ttthhheee JJJJaaaappppaaaannnneeeesssseeee llllaaaannnngggguuuuaaaaggggeeee,,,, ((((2222)))) Japanese language and culture enjoyed substantial ssuuppppoorrtt iiinnn ttthhheee
the parents’’ rrrooollleee iiinnn pppprrrroooommmmoooottttiiiinnnngggg JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee,,,,, (((((33333))))) ttttthhhhheeeee pppppooooosssssiiiiitttttiiiiiooooonnnnn ooooofffff JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee area. Thus for Nisei who grew up in Yashiji�achou and Shin�achi,
language in ssoocciieettyy,,, aaaannnndddd (((((44444))))) pppppeeeeerrrrrsssssooooonnnnnaaaaalllll cccccooooonnnnntttttaaaaaccccctttttsssss wwwwwiiiiittttthhhhh JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee Japanese was tthhee dddooommmiiinnnaaannnttt lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee...
language and the ccuullttuurree... It should be noted iinn aaddddiittiioonn ttthhhaaattt JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee iiimmmmmmiiigggrrraaannntttsss’’’’
Acquiring Japanese. It is important to point out that my experiencess iiinnn HHHiiilllooo ddduuurrriiinnnggg ttthhheee wwwaaarrr wwwweeeerrrreeee llllleeeeessssssssss hhhhhaaaaarrrrrssssshhhhh ttttthhhhhaaaaannnnn ttttthhhhhooooossssseeeee iiiiinnnnn
informants finished their Japanese language education when other areas. Discrimination and prejudice were much less intense
they were in tthheeiirr ttteeeeeennnsss... TTThhhaaattt wwwaaasss bbbeeefffooorrreee ttthhheee wwwaaarrr,,, aaannnddd bbbeeefffooorrreee ttthhheee than in the mainland US aanndd JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee aaannnddd cccuuullltttuuurrreee dddiiiddd
tsunamis destroyed tthheeiirr cccooommmmmmuuunnniiitttiiieeesss... CCChhhiiillldddrrreeennn fffooorrrmmm tttthhhheeeeiiiiirrrrr lllllaaaaannnnnggggguuuuuaaaaagggggeeeee not need to be disclaimed by the Nisei. Foorrr eeexxxaaammmpppllleee,,, MMMrrr... IIInnnooouuueee
abilities at a very young age and because these Nisei speak English mentions that he was surprised to witness how African-Americans
much better than Japanese, they consider that English is their first were segregated in public places when he was training on the
language.. HHoowweevveerr,, NNaakkaajjiimmaa ((22000000)) ddeefifinneess “““mmmmooootttthhhheeeerrrr ttttoooonnnngggguuuueeee””””” aaaaaassssss mainland. He repeatedly told me that he was shocked to see it, as he
“tthhee fifirrsstt lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee tttthhhheeeeyyyy mmmmeeeetttt”””””——————ssssssoooooo iiiiiinnnnnn oooooonnnnnneeeeee sssssseeeeeennnnnnsssssseeeeee tttttthhhhhheeeeeeiiiiiirrrrrr mmmmmmooooootttttthhhhhheeeeeerrrrrr ttttttoooooonnnnnngggggguuuuuueeeeee had never experienced ssuucchh dddiiissscccrrriiimmmiiinnnaaatttiiiooonnn iiinnn HHHiiilllooo... HHHeee rrreeecccaaalllllleeeddd ttthhhaaattt
was Japanese.11 Inevitably, English would become the dominant he used to have lunch together with his co-worker from Portugal.
language later in their lives, but during their cchhiillddhhoooodd,,, JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee This atmosphere ooff eetthhnniicc ttoolleerraattiioonn uuunnndddooouuubbbttteeedddlllyyy aaaffffffeeecccttteeeddd,,, iiinnn
was the first llaanngguuaaggee,,, ttthhheee ““““mmmmmooooottttthhhhheeeeerrrrr tttttooooonnnnnggggguuuuueeeee”””””” ooooooofffffff ttttttthhhhhhheeeeeeessssssseeeeeee Nisei. In the positive ways, Mr. Inoue’’sss aaattttttiiitttuuudddeee tttooowwwaaarrrdddsss ttthhheee JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee
case of Ms. Higashi, who was born in 1923 in Yashiji�achou, she and the culture.
had already mastered the foundations of Japanese llaanngguuaaggee bbbeeefffooorrreee Personal Contacts. Several of the people I spoke with, who
the war started. The aaccqquuiissiittiioonn ooofff JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee aaannnddd cccuuullltttuuurrreee speak fluently in Japanese, managed to stay in ttoouucchh wwwiiittthhh JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee
inside these Japanese communities was completed before the language and culture. After the war, tthheerrreee wwwaaasss aaa dddeeecccrrreeeaaassseee iiinnn ttthhheee
people were bbaannnneedd fffrrrooommm uuusssiiinnnggg JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee ddduuurrriiinnnggg ttthhheee wwwaaarrr... TTThhhiiisss hhhheeeellllppppssss stream of people, products,, aaannnddd iiinnnfffooorrrmmmaaatttiiiooonnn fffrrrooommm JJJaaapppaaannn tttooo HHHiiilllooo...
explain why these Nisei maintained their Japanese llaanngguuaaggee aaannnddd However, some of these Nisei were able to visit Japan and invite
cultural skills. their relatives or friends to visit Hawai‘‘iii... TTThhheeessseee eeevvveeennntttsss iiinnnssspppiiirrreeeddd
The Role of Parents. Nisei were strongly encouraged to learn the Nisei to use Japanese whenever the occasion permitted. For
Japanese language and culture by their parents. Many studies on example, my informants were keen to speak with me in Japanese.
Japanese immigrants have pointed out that the creation of Japanese Reading and writing in Japanese was not so mmuucchh aaa pppaaarrrttt ooofff
language schools was due to the eeaaggeerrnneessss ooofff Issei to maintain tthheeiirr the daily lives of these Nisei, and so their literacy abilities have
Japanese heritage.12 It is said that Nisei used a varied mixture of gradually declined. However, they are still able to enjoy watching
English, Hawaiian, and Japanese with local dialects. For instance, TV dramas from Japan, listening to Japanese radio programs, and
“PPaappaa,, HHaannaa hhaannaa.. HHoouussee,, OOrraann””” mmmmeeeeaaaannnnssss “““““MMMMMMyyyyyy ffffffaaaaaatttttthhhhhheeeeeerrrrrr iiiiiissssss aaaaaatttttt wwwwwwoooooorrrrrrkkkkkk,,,,,, singing Japanese songs at Karaoke15. They consider these to be
absent from home.”” ““““PPPPPaaaaapppppaaaaa”””””” aaaaaaannnnnnnddddddd ““““““““hhhhhhhhhooooooooouuuuuuuuussssssssseeeeeeeee”””””””””” aaaaaaaaaaarrrrrrrrrrreeeeeeeeeee EEEEEEEEEEEnnnnnnnnnnngggggggggggllllllllllliiiiiiiiiiissssssssssshhhhhhhhhhh wwwwwwwwwwwooooooooooorrrrrrrrrrrdddddddddddsssssssssss........... ““““““““““““HHHHHHHHHHHHHaaaaaaaaaaaaannnnnnnnnnnnnaaaaaaaaaaaaa enjoyable activities that provide them with opportunities to keep
hana”” mmmeeeaaannnsss jjjooobbb iiinnn HHHaaawwwaaaiiiiiiaaannn... ““““OOOOOrrrrraaaaannnnn”””””” mmmmmmmeeeeeeeaaaaaaannnnnnnsssssss aaaaaaabbbbbbbssssssseeeeeeennnnnnnttttttt iiiiiiinnnnnnn JJJJJJJaaaaaaapppppppaaaaaaannnnnnneeeeeeessssssseeeeeee.......13 their speaking and listening skills alive.
Issei aspired to provide proper Japanese language and cultural My informants often participate in activities aarrrraannggeedd bbyy ttthhheee
education so that their children would grow up as competent Hawai‘‘iii JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee CCCeeennnttteeerrr... IIItttsss ttthhheeemmmeee iiisss ““““ppppprrrrreeeeessssseeeeerrrrrvvvvviiiiinnnnnggggg ttttthhhhheeeee pppppaaaaasssssttttt tttttooooo bbbbbuuuuuiiiiilllllddddd
Japanese speakers fully aware of their cultural heritage. Moreover, the future..”” TTThhheee ccceeennnttteeerrr hhhaaasss tttwwwooo mmmaaaiiinnn ooobbbjjjeeeccctttiiivvveeesss::: tttooo gggaaattthhheeerrr aaannnddd
many of the Japanese immigrants were thinking of returning to preserve historical materials for anyone who wants to know the
Japan someday after they have saved enough money. Many Nisei history of Japanese iimmmmiiggrraannttss aaannnddd tttooo ooorrrgggaaannniiizzzeee eeevvveeennntttsss aaannnddd aaaccctttiiivvviiitttiiieeesss
complied wwiitthh ttthhheeeiiirrr pppaaarrreeennntttsss’’’’ eeeeexxxxxpppppeeeeeccccctttttaaaaatttttiiiiiooooonnnnnsssss..... for the Nikkei community.. MMyy iinnffoorrmmaannttss rreeppoorrtt tthhaatt tthheeyy eennjjooyy
Mr. Inoue, who was born in 1918 in Shin�achi, remembered participating in singing Karaoke, dancing at festivals, welcoming
that his mother encouraged him to take every ooppppoorrttuunniittyy tttooo guests from Japan, and explaining local history to them in Japanese.
learn and use Japanese. He mentioned that though he himself was Thus the center performs an important role in the community in
interested in learning Japanese, his mother’’sss eeexxxpppeeeccctttaaatttiiiooonnn wwwaaasss qqquuuiiittteee aaaa promoting Japanese culture and language.
strong motivation aass wweellll... IIInnn aaaddddddiiitttiiiooonnn,,,, wwwwwhhhhheeeeennnnn hhhhheeeee wwwwwaaaaasssss ooooonnnnnlllllyyyyy fififififivvvvveeeee yyyyyeeeeeaaaaarrrrrsssss On March 3, tthhee GGGiiirrrlll’’’’sssss DDDDDaaaaayyyyy FFFFFeeeeessssstttttiiiiivvvvvaaaaalllll wwwwwaaaaasssss ccccceeeeellllleeeeebbbbbrrrrraaaaattttteeeeeddddd aaaaattttt ttttthhhhheeeee
old,, hhhiiisss mmmooottthhheeerrr aaarrrrrraaannngggeeeddd ppprrriiivvvaaattteee llleeessssssooonnnsss iiiinnnn rrrreeeeaaaaddddiiiinnnngggg aaaannnndddd wwwwrrrriiiittttiiiinnnngggg campus of the University of Hawai‘‘iii... 16 This event brought together
Japanese.. IInn JJaappaann,, cchhiillddrreenn dddooo nnnooottt uuusssuuuaaallllllyyy bbbbeeeeggggiiiinnnn lllleeeeaaaarrrrnnnniiiinnnngggg ttttoooo rrrreeeeaaaadddd not only Nikkei but other uunniivveerrssiitttyyy ssstttuuudddeeennntttsss... TTThhheeeyyy wwweeerrreee aaabbbllleee tttooo
and write until they are six years old. Mr.. IIInnnooouuueee’’’’ssss mmmmooootttthhhheeeerrrr aaaaalllllsssssooooo fffffooooouuuuunnnnnddddd enjoy participating in Japanese martial arts such as Aikido and
a part time job for her son so that he could use Japanese when he traditions like Sadou (the tea ceremony),, aanndd Shuuji (penmanship).
was a high school student. He had to keep a book in Japanese and On Apprrriiilll 111999,,, ttthhheeerrreee wwwaaasss aaa ssshhhooowwwiiinnnggg ooofff ttthhheee mmmooovvviiieee Aizen Katsura (The
communicate with customers in Japanese. Tree of Love).. IIIttt iiisss qqquuuiiittteee aaaannnn ooooolllllddddd fififififilllllmmmmm,,,,,, mmmmmmmaaaaaaadddddddeeeeeee iiiiiiinnnnnnn 1111111999999933333338888888,,,,,,,, aaaaaaaaannnnnnnnnddddddddd bbbbbbbbbaaaaaaaaassssssssseeeeeeeeeddddddddd ooooooooonnnnnnnnn
Japanese Language in the Co��unity. Japanese language a novel with the same title by Kawaguchi Matsuda. It is a love
did not have a low ssoocciiaall ssstttaaatttuuusss iiinnn HHHiiilllooo... AAAnnn iiimmmpppooorrrtttaaannnttt rrreeeaaasssooonnn fffooorrr story involving a doctor from aa rrriiiccchhh fffaaammmiiilllyyy aaannnddd aaa sssiiinnngggllleee mmmooottthhheeerrr...
the survival of a language iiss tthhaatt iitt ppoosssseesssseess aa cceerrttaaiinn aammoouunntt They struggle to overcome many difficulties to be together. I had
of ppoolliittiiccaall,, eeccoonnoommiicc,, aanndd cccuuullltttuuurrraaalll pppooowwweeerrr iiiinnnn tttthhhheeee sssssoooooccccciiiiieeeeetttttyyyyy......14 TThhee never heard of it, but it is a great favorite of the Niseii. On Mother’’sss
Japanese accounted for sixty percent of the population of Hilo, so day, the eleventh of May, they showed Sa�urai Musashi, a film
 Educational Perspectives v Volume 0 v Number 1
based on the life of the famed swordsman. On June 15, they had Mr. Inoue: Washiga, yoo, Sakana demo chiisaino toru,
a Japanese buffet luncheon party. In July, they had a show with yeah? Uchino house motteittara, mendokusai tte okorukara,
Japanese singers and dancers. And in August, they had a guest ano house ittene. Ano obasanga, ryourishite, soide, tofuuya
from Okinawa who demonstrated Okinawan dance and music and dakara, aburaga aru, yeah? Asukode, soijake, washi, nat-
explained the history of these arts. suyasumi no tokide, uchinoieni ite tabetakoto nai.
Later in the ffaallll,,, ttthhheee CCCeeennnttteeerrr hhheeelllddd aaa Ka�on (family ccrreesstt)))
It’’sss iiinnnttteeerrreeessstttiiinnnggg tttooo rrreeeflflfleeecccttt ooonnn ttthhheee rrriiiccchhh llliiinnnggguuuiiissstttiiiccc vvvaaarrriiieeetttyyy ooofff ttthhhiiisss
workshop. Many Nisei have obtained tthheeiirr fffaaammmiiilllyyy cccrrreeessstttsss fffrrrooommm JJJaaapppaaannn...
passage: Yoo is a local dialect word of western Japan that means
The Ka�on show Nikkei their roots, if they have been maintained
“oofftteenn”””.... Yeah is the same as in English ccoonnvveerrssaattiioonn... House is
properly. I participated in this workshop with several Nisei and
English. Soide mmeeaannss ““““aaaaannnnnddddd ttttthhhhheeeeennnnn”””””” iiiiiiinnnnnnn JJJJJJJaaaaaaapppppppaaaaaaannnnnnneeeeeeessssssseeeeeee....... TTTTTTThhhhhhhiiiiiiisssssss iiiiiiisssssss aaaaaaa lllllllooooooocccccccaaaaaaalllllll dddddddiiiiiiiaaaaaaallllllleeeeeeecccccccttttttt
saw how excited they were to trace their roots. In October the
word of western and southern Japan. Sorede is standard Japanese.
Center held one its main events, a musical ffeessttiivvaall cccaaalllllleeeddd MMMuuusssiiicccaaalll
Asukode means ““ttthhheeerrreee”””” iiiiinnnnn JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee..... TTTTThhhhhiiiiisssss wwwwwooooorrrrrddddd iiiiisssss uuuuussssseeeeeddddd mmmmmaaaaaiiiiinnnnnlllllyyyyy iiiiinnnnn
Nostalgia. Both professional and semi-professional singers and
western and southern Japan. Asokode is standard Japanese. Soijake
dancers entertained the audience of more than three hundred people.
means ““bbbeeecccaaauuussseee ooofff ttthhhaaattt”””” iiiiinnnnn HHHHHiiiiirrrrrooooossssshhhhhiiiiimmmmmaaaaa dddddiiiiiaaaaallllleeeeecccccttttt,,,,, wwwwwhhhhhiiiiillllleeeee Soudakara is
The variety and excellence of these events attracts a wide ppaarrttiicciippaa--
used in standard Japanese. Similarly, Jakee or Jakara are employed
tion,, iinncclluuddiinngg Nisei and non-Japanese people who live in Hilo.
quite often among Nisei, and are still in use in the dialect of
The above ssttoorriieess ssssuuuuggggggggeeeesssstttt iiiiiinnnnnntttttteeeeeerrrrrreeeeeessssssttttttiiiiiinnnnnngggggg pppppppaaaaaaatttttttttttttteeeeeeerrrrrrrnnnnnnnsssssss ooooooofffffff lllllllliiiiiiiinnnnnnnngggggggguuuuuuuuiiiiiiiissssssssttttttttiiiiiiiicccccccc aaaaaaaaaannnnnnnnnndddddddddd
Hiroshima and its surrounding areas.
cultural survival along the lines posited by JJJooossshhhuuuaaa FFFiiissshhhmmmaaannn wwwwhhhhoooo
With regard to Japanese culture and entertainment, the Nisei
identifies ffoouurr rreewwaarrddss tthhaatt cccooonnntttrrriiibbbuuuttteee ttttoooo llllaaaannnngggguuuuaaaaggggeeee mmmmaaaaiiiinnnntttteeeennnnaaaannnncccceeee....
clearly favor pre-war times. They may enjoy TV programs and
There are social rewards ssuucchh aass eennffoorrcciinngg aanndd rreeccooggnniizziinngg mmeemm--
songs that are currently popular in Japan. However, these people
bership in the family, in the community, in society, and generally
have a special attachment to the past. Even ttthhhooouuuggghhh ttthhheee Nisei have
among people; fiscal rewards such as jobs, promotions, raises, and
kept in touch with Japanese people and Japanese ccuullttuurree,,, ttthhheee
bonuses; political rewards such as elections, appointments, and
public, acclaim; aanndd,,, fififinnnaaallllllyyy,,, rrrrreeeeellllliiiiigggggiiiiiooooouuuuusssss rrrrreeeeewwwwwwaaaaaarrrrrrddddddssssss......17 language and culture of the Nisei are quite distinctive. They have
changed it to fit to the local life of Hilo,, aanndd iiittt iiisss ttthhhiiisss pppeeerrrsssooonnnaaalll
When the Niissseeeiii were younger, a vvaarriieettyy ooofff sssoooccciiiaaalll aaannnddd fififissscccaaalll
dimension that has become internalized, preserving a continuous
rewards contributed to them learning Japanese. These results
tradition of language and practice.
were clear from the individual life histories that my research
disclosed. However, this did not explain why some Nisei, mmaannyy
Conclusion
who are now in their 80ss,,, aaarrreee ssstttiiillllll aaabbbllleee tttooo ssspppeeeaaakkk JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee flflfluuueeennntttlllyyy...
I suspect that one main reason they have mmaaiinnttaaiinneeeddd ttthhheeeiiirrr JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee The Nisei of Hilo have experienced some difficulties in
is not due simply to the continuing influence of earlier social maintainiinngg ttthhheeeiiirrr ppprrrooofifificcciiieeennncccyyy iiinnn JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeee aaannnddd cccuuullltttuuurrreee...
and fiscal rewards. It is more a rreessuulltt ooofff pppeeerrrsssooonnnaaalll iiinnnttteeerrreeessstttsss aaannnddd Nevertheless, four factors have contributed to linguistic and
commitments kept alive by the survival of community values. cultural maintenance. First, the Nisei acquired their language
The Nisei continue to eennjjooyy oolldd JJaappaanneessee ssoonnggss aanndd fifillmmss tthhaatt and the culture early and were able to develop it through vvaarriioouuss
enable them to stay in touch with Japanese language and culture. educatioonnaall mmeeaannss——tthhee sssccchhhoooooolll,,,, tttthhhheeee hhhhoooommmmeeee,,,, aaaannnndddd tttthhhheeee ccccoooommmmmmmmuuuunnnniiiittttyyyy....
This personal factor would not have been as strong in their earlier Secondly, Issei played a significant role in motivating Nisei to learn
years. But in surviving the difficult periods of the war and the the JJaappaanneessee llaanngguuaaggee aanndd ccuullttuurree.. TThhee hhiigghh eexxppeeccttaattiioonnss tthhaatt tthheeyy
tsunamis that devastated their communities, they have maintained had for their children and the strong support that they gave tthheemm
and deepened their desire to keep their language and culture aalliivvee... were important factors. Thirdly, the prestige of Japanese llaanngguuaaggee
It is an affirmation of personal value, sseennssee ooff cccooommmmmmuuunnniiitttyyy,,,, aaaaannnnnddddd in ttthhheee wwwwiiiiddddeeeerrrr ccccoooommmmmmmmuuuunnnniiiittttyyyy wwwwaaaassss ccccrrrriiiittttiiiiccccaaaallll ttttoooo kkkkeeeeeeeeppppiiiinnnngggg tttthhhheeee ttttrrrraaaaddddiiiittttiiiioooonnnn aaaalllliiiivvvveeee....
commitment. And finally, even though their exposure to Japanese was and is
limited, the Hawai‘‘iii JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee CCCeeennnttteeerrr hhhaaasss ppppprrrrrooooovvvvviiiiidddddeeeeeddddd aaaaaannnnnndddddd ccccccoooooonnnnnnttttttiiiiiinnnnnnuuuuuueeeeeessssss
Thoughts oonn JJaappaanneessee LLaanngguuaaggee aanndd tthhee
to provide many ooppppoorrttuunniittiieess ttoo pprroommoottee JJaappaanneessee llaanngguuaaggee sssooo
Culture of tthhee NNNiiissseeeiii
that people are able to rreemmaaiinn aaacccqqquuuaaaiiinnnttteeeddd wwwwiiiitttthhhh JJJJaaaappppaaaannnneeeesssseeee ccccuuuullllttttuuuurrrreeee....
I have referred to Nisei’ss flfluueennccyy iinn ssppeeaakkiinngg JJaappaanneessee.. TThhiiss Nisei do enjoy eenntteerrttaaiinnmmeennttss tthhaatt aallllooww tthheemm ttoo uuussseee ttthhheeeiiirrr JJJaaapppaaannneeessseee...
requires some further explanations. Their Japanese language is different Thheeyy lliikkee ssiinnggiinngg KKaarraaookkee iinn JJaappaanneessee,, wwaattcchhiinngg JJaappaanneessee fifillmmss,,
from standard Japanese spoken in contemporary Japanese ssoocciieettyy... Nisei and ttaallkkiinngg wwiitthh gguueessttss ffrroomm JJaappaann.. AAllll ooff tthheessee aaccttiivviittiieess aallllooww
Japanese is based on Japanese influenced by Hiroshima and Yamaguchi the Nisei to keep in touch routinely with Japanese language and
dialects and mixed wwiitthh vvvooocccaaabbbuuulllaaarrryyy ttthhhaaattt dddeeerrriiivvveeesss fffrrrooommm ooottthhheeerrr lllaaannnggguuuaaagggeeesss the culture. These internal and external influences have impacted
such aass EEEnnngggllliiissshhh aaannnddd HHHaaawwwaaaiiiiiiaaannn... TTThhhheeeeeiiiiirrrrr lllllaaaaannnnnggggguuuuuaaaaagggggeeeee ooooofffffttttteeeeennnnn bbbbbeeeeetttttrrrrraaaaayyyyysssss ooooollllldddddeeeeerrrrr the continuity of Japanese language and culture among the Nisei in
patterns of Japanese speech. Hilo. Furthermore, as the life histories of the Nisei make clear,, ttthhheeerrreee
For instance, Mr. Inoue related a story ttoo mmee fffrrrooommm hhhiiisss ccchhhiiillldddhhhooooooddd——— is a personal dimension to tthheeiirr aaattttttaaaccchhhmmmeeennnttt tttooo tttthhhheeee JJJJJaaaaapppppaaaaannnnneeeeessssseeeee lllllaaaaannnnnggggguuuuuaaaaagggggeeeee
a story about catching some small fish. His mother disliked cooking and culture—one that contributes importantly to the survival of
such small fish. So, he brought them to his friends’’ hhhooouuussseee... Japanese language and culture iinn HHaawwaaii‘‘ii...
College of Education v University of Hawai‘i at Mänoa 
BiBliogRAphy endnotes
Dudley, W. & Stone,, SS... ((((22222000000000000000))))))...... The Tsuna�i of 1946 and the 1 Shin�achi means “new town” and Yashiji�achou means
Devastation of Hilo Town. Virginia: The Donning Company. “coconut-island town” in Japanese.
Dudley, W., & Lee, M. (1998)).. TSUNAMI!. Honolulu: University of 2 Fishman, The Rise and Fall of the Ethnic Revival: Perspectives
Hawai’’ ii PPrreessss... on Language and Ethnicity, 369
Fishman, J. A. (1985)).. ””Thheee RRRiiissseee aaannnddd FFFaaallllll ooofff ttthhheee EEEttthhhnnniiiccc RRReeevvviiivvvaaalll::: 3 Kyokai. Hawaii Nihonjin I�in-shi, 312–314
Perspectives on Language and Ethnicity. Berlin: Mouton. 4 Ibid., 317
Hawai‘‘iii NNNiiihhhooonnnjjjiiinnn RRReeennngggooouuu KKKyyyooouuukkkaaaiii... (((111999666444)))).... Hawai‘i Nihonjin 5 Glen Wright, Hilo fro� the Beginning : A History of Hawai’i
I�in-shi [A History of Japanese Immigrants in Hawai‘‘iii]]]]..... eeeeeddddd.....
Islands, 33.
Motohiro, T. Honolulu: United Japanese Society of Hawai‘‘iii...
6 Nakamura & Kobayashi, The History of The Waiakea Pirates
Nakajima, K. ((222000000111)))).... Bairingaru Kyouiku No Houhou:
Athletic Club and The Yashiji�a Story, 19.
12sai�adeni Oyato Kyoushiga Dekirukoto [A way of Bilingual
Education: What parents and teachers can do when their 7 Editorial, Hilo Tribune-Herald, April 3, 1946; Editorial, Hawaii
children become 12 years old]]... Tokyo: Aruku. Tribune-Herald, April 1, 1979
Nakamura, R. I. & Kobayashi, GG..RR.. ((111999999999)))).... ““““The History of The 8 Dudley & Stone, The Tsuna�i of 1946 and the Devastation of
Wai��kkkeeeaaa PPPiiirrraaattteeesss AAAttthhhllleeetttiiiccc CCCllluuubbb aaannnddd TTThhheee YYYaaassshhhiiijjjiii���aaa SSStttooorrryyy Hilo Town, 16.
(Wai��kkkeeeaaa TTTooowwwnnn)))... Waiääkkkeeeaaa PPPiiirrraaattteeesss AAAttthhhllleeetttiiiccc CCCllluuubbb... 9 Dudley & Lee, TSUNAMI! 130–176.
Wright, G. ((11999999)).. Hilo fro� the BBeeggiinnnniinngg:: AAA HHHiiissstttooorrryyy ooofff HHHaaawwwaaaiii’i 10 These are not the real names of the two subjects.
Islands “Crescent City..” HHiilloo,, HHII:: BBaassiiccaallllyy BBooookkss...
11 Nakajima, Bairingaru Kyouiku No Houhou, 18–26.
12 Tanimura, Hawai‘i Nihonjin I�in-shi, 14.
13 Ibid., 15.
14 Nakajima, 12.
15 A Japanese radio program from the Hawaii Japanese Center on
KHBC (AM1060) called Kangaesaserareta Mondai.
16 “Keep in Touch”( January, 1, 2004) is a news later which is
published by the Hawaii Japanese Center.
17 Fishman, 369.