ERIC EJ876481: Teaching Psychology to Computing Students

2008·0.07 MB·English

by  ERIC

Teaching psychology to computing students
Jacqui Taylor
The aim of this paper is two-fold. The first aim is to discuss some observations gained from teaching
psychology to computing students, highlighting both the wide range of areas where psychology is relevant to
computing education and the topics that are relevant at different stages of students’ education. The second
aim is to consider findings from research investigating the characteristics of computing and psychology
students. It is proposed that this information could be considered in the design and use of psychology
materials for computing students.
The format for the paper is as follows. The first section will illustrate the many links between the disci-
plines of psychology and computing; highlighting these links helps to answer the question that many
computing students ask, what can psychology offer to computing? The second section will then review some
of the ways that psychologists have been involved in the teaching of psychology to computing students, from
A/AS level to undergraduate and postgraduate level. The third section will compare the profiles of
computing and psychology students (e.g. on age, gender and motivation to study), to highlight how an
understanding of these factors can be used to adapt psychology teaching materials for computing students.
The conclusions which cover some practical suggestions are presented in the fourth section.
What can psychology offer to computing?
T
HERE IS A symbiotic relationship problems, i.e. the domain of cognitive
between computing and psychology: psychology. It is also important for students
psychologists have helped in many ways to consider individual differences and social
to understand the way that computer systems behaviour if effective interaction between
are developed and used, but also an under- people and computer systems is to be
standing of computers has helped psycho- achieved, i.e. the domain of personality and
logists to model and investigate human social psychology. An understanding of these
cognitive and social processes. This article topics in psychology enables students in
will focus on the former but it is important computing to consider the potential capabil-
when teaching computing students to ities and limitations of computer users and
acknowledge the contributions from helps them to design computer systems that
computing to further understanding in the are more effective (usable) and affective
field of psychology. For example, computa- (enjoyable). Applied psychologists have
tional modelling is a tool often used in been involved in these areas for many years
cognitive psychology to allow psychologists and often work in departments other than
to visualise hypotheses about the functional psychology (e.g. Human Computer Inter-
organisation of mental events that couldn't action (HCI), Human Factors or Ergo-
be directly observed in a human. nomics). In addition to covering the
Over the past 50 years, psychologists have foundation areas of psychology and HCI, it is
tracked and researched the development also important that computing students are
and impact of computers and they have also taught evaluation methods and that they are
been instrumental in their design and evolu- able to consider the social impacts regarding
tion. To design, develop and evaluate user- the implementation and use of computer
friendly technology students need to systems in organisations and society. The
understand and consider how people next section will cover the way that psycho-
perceive, remember, feel, think and solve logists can help in the teaching of ethics in
Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008 21
© The British Psychological Society
Jacqui Taylor
computing and also look at the important design of ATM machines, how gender and
role that psychologists have in teaching personality can affect performance using a
research methods. drawing package, and stress in air traffic
controllers. To illustrate social processes, the
A review of experiences teaching
ways that ‘groupware’ such as video-confer-
psychology to computer students
encing and decision-support systems can
In this section, some experiences of teaching influence the way people interact and
psychology to computing students at communicate was covered. Subsequently, a
different stages of their education – from selection of practical workshops was offered
A/AS level to undergraduate and postgrad- to demonstrate how psychology has influ-
uate level – will be reviewed. enced the design, evaluation or implementa-
tion of computer software and hardware. For
Teaching psychology to A/AS level
example, students could devise their own
computing students
website using psychological principles and
In 2004, a British Psychological Society study the impact of in-car technologies on
‘Public Engagement’ grant supported the working memory.
organisation of a one-day event for students To evaluate student learning and experi-
enrolled on computing A/AS level courses ences, a questionnaire was distributed at the
to demonstrate how psychology can help to end of the day and two questions addressed
understand and develop computer systems. the aims of the event. Students were asked,
Preparation for the event involved talking to Has the event today changed your perception of
A/AS level computing tutors and studying the role of psychology in computing, and if so in
the syllabi for the various computing what way? The general consensus to this
courses. This revealed that, although various question was an overwhelming yes, with 90
modules/units covered Human Computer per cent positive comments. The qualitative
Interaction (HCI) or ‘interaction design’, comments revealed that many students
there was very little psychological back- could now see more clearly the links between
ground to support the HCI guidelines that psychology and computing, for example,
were taught. Three foundation areas in one said, ‘It has helped me to realise that
psychology were identified that were consid- there is more to consider than just putting
ered important for students prior to all the information in the (software). The
discussing HCI. These were: cognitive human factor plays a bigger part than
processes (including the topics of percep- I thought’. The second question asked,
tion, attention and memory); individual Can you give an example of an aspect of human
differences (including age, gender, person- and computer interaction introduced today that
ality, cognitive style); and social processes has stayed in your mind? The responses
(including group-working and communica- included: ‘How much the layout of a
tion). The event started with lectures computer interface affects humans’; ‘Social
covering these three areas of psychology and aspects and user requirements. How users
this was followed by a human factors use the technology’, and ‘How similar the
consultant who applied the areas of processing is between humans and
psychology to computing, in a discussion of computers.’ The most enjoyable features of
user-centred design. For example, to illus- the day were the workshops and the least
trate the role of cognitive factors in the use enjoyable were the lectures, therefore future
of computer systems case studies linked events aimed at pre-degree students could
cognitive load with car driving behaviour include more practical activities.
and the use of web pages. To illustrate indi-
vidual differences case studies involved a
consideration of the ageing population in
22 Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008
Teaching psychology to computer students
Teaching psychology to undergraduate ● how to construct questionnaire items to
computing students
avoid bias;
The area of HCI is now well covered on most ● issues of data screening and sample
computing degrees. However, undergrad- attrition rates need to be considered;
uate computing students often have little ● the demographic profiles and
understanding regarding the way empirical questionnaire scores of those who did
methods (an integral part of all psychology and did not take part in online
degrees) can be used to evaluate computer experiments or surveys need
systems. To address this, psychologists can consideration.
usefully give guest lectures on computing The teaching of ethics to computing
degrees on the topics of empirical methods, students is not new. For some time, the
internet-mediated research and ethics. teaching of ethics has been a requirement
A range of empirical methods but ideally on degrees accredited by the British
students need to experience these methods, Computer Society (BCS). Since the classic
therefore, it is helpful if the teaching experi- text by Johnson (1985), coverage of ethics
ence includes case studies and practical has increased as computers become more
workshops with associated scientific reports pervasive in daily life. For example, issues of
as coursework. For example, workshops information security such as privacy, owner-
which compare qualitative methods (e.g. ship, access and liability and reliability have
observation, focus groups) and quantitative become more important. These advances
methods (e.g. questionnaires and perform- have led to the most recent edition of
ance scores) to evaluate the use of computer Johnson (2001) including much work
games have been used and this has illus- drawing on psychology, e.g. covering the
trated the different methodological psychological and social implications of
approaches well. internet use. However, despite the increasing
Still on the topic of methods, using the need for ethics teaching sometimes there
Internet to conduct research receives less can be pressure on computing departments
coverage on computing degrees than might in meeting this requirement. This is mainly
be expected. As with traditional experi- due to it being a difficult area for computing
mental design, designing an Internet-based staff to teach which, according to Dark and
experiment or survey requires careful Winstead (2005), is because the area of
consideration. Although computing ethics is not positivistic in nature. Also, there
lecturers have the technical skills to conduct is a lack of context-related materials,
online surveys, they often have less under- although the Learning and Teaching
standing of experimental design and what Support network (LTSN) have recently been
can be done with the data. There are many addressing this (LTSN, 2004). This has often
benefits of internet-mediated research (for resulted in situations where lecturers with
example, access to a larger population), little background in ethics are teaching it to
however, many psychological and method- computing students. As a psychologist
ological issues need to be addressed by teaching guest lectures/workshops on ethics
computing students and researchers; the a different perspective can be offered to
issues covered include: computing students. Teaching materials can
● ethical issues, e.g. whether informed be based on the work of Dark and Winstead
consent can be gained online and how (2005), who discuss the use of educational
debriefing will take place; theory and moral psychology to inform the
● the difficulty in ensuring that the teaching of ethics in computing-related
participant is who they say they are and fields. In their paper, they discuss ideas on
that they are answering in an honest way; moral development and the nature of
● how to gain a representative sample; morality, specifically as it relates to changes
Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008 23
Jacqui Taylor
that educators may be trying to elicit within ‘mature’, employed students there was a
computing students when teaching ethics. strong focus on how students could make
The ways that a computer scientist and a practical use of the research findings in their
psychologist teach ethics can be quite work. After covering the major topics within
different, with the former more likely to use social psychology (conversation and commu-
a positivist approach and the latter an nication; group processes; interpersonal
approach based on educational theories. For perception and attraction; social influence;
example, a positivist approach would define attitudes, and conflict), applied topics can
what is right and what is not right (i.e. define be covered such as:
truth) and then address what happens if one ● Computer-mediated communication: for
does not do what is right or does what is example, the ways that online group
wrong. However, many psychologists would discussion, using bulletin boards and
disagree, saying that you cannot teach right video conferencing, can impact on
and wrong and that although there are many interaction and decision-making and
laws which computer students need to know how to make online meetings as effective
about, regarding what is wrong/right in as face-to-face meetings;
society, there are not many things that are ● Affective computing: covering the role of
ethically questionable that are not illegal emotion in computing systems and how
(and possibly vice versa!). In summary, to design systems that are effective and
philosophers have long recognised that it is affective – this is a rapidly expanding
almost impossible to ‘teach’ a student ethics, topic in HCI and one which many
rather teachers need to advance students’ students have little background
sense of moral development and reasoning understanding, therefore, this lecture
(Kohlberg & Kramer, 1969), something provides a review of emotion involving
covered on all psychology degrees. With this definitions and early and current
in mind, it is also important to consider the research directions;
age and experience of students when ● New technology and organisational
designing teaching materials on ethics change: covering the role of
(covered further in the next section of this occupational psychologists in computer
paper). In summary, psychologists have a lot system implementation (e.g. the issues
to offer in the teaching of ethics to for the management of staff working
computing students. Greene and Hiadt online and remotely) as well as internet-
(2002) go as far as discussing ethics purely in based methods for recruitment and
psychological terms regarding the cognitive, selection of personnel and training
affective and social aspects when they state employees.
that the origins of human morality are Feedback from students indicated that they
‘emotions linked to expanding cognitive appreciated the ‘academic’ approach, where
abilities that make people care about the practical ideas were grounded in psycho-
welfare of others, about co-operation, logical research. Also, postgraduate students
cheating and norm following.’ were more interested, compared to under-
graduate students, in the philosophical
Teaching psychology to postgraduate
debates regarding the psychological implica-
computing students
tions of internet use. Four issues discussed
I have delivered a unit on a postgraduate were:
Advanced Computing degree which covered ● Is deviance online any different from
the work of social psychologists in studying deviance in face-to-face contexts?
the ways that technology can affect social ● Can people become addicted to the
interaction, attitudes and behaviour. As this internet in the same way as other
unit was aimed at primarily part-time, addictions?
24 Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008
Teaching psychology to computer students
● Does the internet reduce social comparing males and females for
involvement and psychological well- computing-related and psychology-related
being? subject areas. There are no figures give for
● Does a person’s face-to-face identity psychology separately as a discipline, there-
differ from their e-identity? fore, Table 1 shows the three subject areas
Also, I have delivered Masters-level guest where psychology degree data is included by
lectures to students which cover psycho- HESA, depending on the focus of the
logical research within a very specific area of degree. It can be seen that in the UK in
software design and development: one on 2005/2006 females made up only 21 per
e-commerce and one on computer games cent of students graduating with computer
(further detail can be found in Taylor, 2002). science degrees, while they made up 82 per
In the first of these lectures, the important cent of students graduating with a degree in
links between commercial internet use and a ‘Subject allied to medicine’.
psychological research in the areas of indi-
vidual consumer behaviour and trust in Table 1: Data taken from HESA (2007)
e-commerce exchanges and relations comparing males and females for
between company and consumer are computing-related and psychology-
explored. The lecture on computer games related subject areas.
looks at how the design of games can facili-
tate ‘flow’ and introduces students to the HESA subject area Females Males
area of Positive Psychology which is rapidly % %
gaining ground within mainstream Computer Science 21 79
psychology.
Engineering and
16 84
Technology
Research investigating the profile of
computing students Biological Science 65 35
The variation between students studying Subject allied to
82 18
different disciplines has been well docu- medicine
mented regarding age, gender and Social Studies 59 41
approaches to studying (e.g. Richardson,
1994). Those studies which have specifically
investigated the profile of computing There have been many attempts to explain
students will be reviewed here. It is proposed the reasons why males and females are
that some of these factors may affect the way attracted to different disciplines. A review of
that psychology teaching materials are these studies shows very little support for
perceived by students and their level of cognitive abilities being the differentiating
engagement with the materials. In some factor (e.g. Halpern, 1992, found similar
areas, these factors could be considered in abilities when comparing social with physical
the way that materials are designed and sciences). Recent research has looked at
presented. personal values or interests or motivation
factors to investigate what Radford and
Gender
Holdstock (1995) term, ‘what people want to
The composition of most psychology and do rather than what they can do.’
computing degree courses are significantly Wilson (2003) used quantitative and qual-
skewed, with females making up the majority itative methods to further understanding of
of psychology degrees and males making up how computing is perceived. In her paper
the majority of computing degrees. Table 1 she argues from a constructionist approach
presents data taken from the Higher Educa- that, rather than any real difference in skill,
tion Statistical Agency (HESA) (2007) female and male differences are a ‘product of
Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008 25
Jacqui Taylor
historical and cultural construction of tech- psychology degrees. Students were given a
nology as masculine’ (p.128). For example, list of 60 items on the ‘outcomes or benefits
she notes that girls at school have been of Higher Education’ to rank. These ranged
shown to be superior to boys in some areas of from passing exams, learning to work with
programming, but that they lack encourage- others, development as a person, develop
ment and interest so that by the time they problem solving skills, etc. The results
reach 18 years of age they have already opted showed that the most important items differ-
out. Wilson identifies teaching styles which entiating the two fields were:
appeal to female students as those with an
emphasis on relational and contextual issues Computing:
and co-operative learning through teamwork Develop problem-solving and computer
and group projects. While styles preferred by skills;
males are those emphasise the formal and Clear, logical thinking;
abstract and independent learning. There- Increasing future earning power;
fore, when teaching psychology to Practical, work-related experience.
computing students (dominated by male
students) traditional methods used in Psychology:
psychology classes such as seminar discus- Development as a person;
sions may not be the most effective. Understanding other people;
Understanding oneself;
Age
Greater personal independence.
Psychology degrees tend to attract a signifi-
cant number of mature entrants who have After factor analysis, Radford and Holdstock
frequently been employed in other careers, (1995) identified two factors related to
have many life experiences or are returning choice of discipline: (i) personal develop-
to work after raising a family. While ment versus social relationships; and (ii)
computing degrees tend to attract direct- ‘people’ oriented versus ‘thing’ oriented
entry A-level students. It is important to (thinking about as well as directly dealing
consider age, stage of moral development with people and things). The implications of
and life experience of students when this for teaching psychology to computing
designing and presenting materials on the students are two-fold: (i) that computer
topic of ethics. For example, an environment students may be less open to thinking about
needs to be created that allows students to people problems when computers are
safely reflect on and explore their (some- designed and implemented; and (ii) that it is
times immature) moral beliefs relative to the important that students are aware that the
current issues in computing. way people use technology and their inter-
actions with others can be as important as
Motivation to study and learning style
functionality.
Age is closely linked to the motivation of A considerable amount of work has been
students to enrol on a University degree. published on the relationship between
Many psychology entrants enrol to help personality type and learning in Further and
develop an understanding of themselves and Higher Education, although there is rela-
others and to develop ‘people’ skills useful tively little focussing on students from
later in a range of careers. In contrast, many specific disciplines. Recently, Layman, Corn-
computing students see the degree as a step- well and Williams (2006) collected person-
ping stone to gaining employment in the ality types of students studying a software
computing industry. Radford and Holdstock engineering course using the Myers-Briggs
(1995) investigated differences between Type Indicator (MBTI). Their intention was
reasons why students chose computing and to consider each of the four dimensions of
26 Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008
Teaching psychology to computer students
the MBTI to help them create a teaching dimension, it was found that in their sample,
style and materials to appeal to as many of judgers hold a majority over perceivers.
their software engineering students as Judgers tend to be organised, decisive and to
possible. Layman et al. reported the distribu- like concise, concrete explanations, there-
tions presented in Table 2, where it can be fore a clearly presented lecture will often
seen that the profile, in terms of the majority contain the type of information that appeals
for each type, is of an Introvert, iNtuitive, to them. On the other hand, perceivers are
Thinking and Judging (i.e. of the 16 types it flexible and open to change and, therefore,
is an INTJ type). comfortable with ambiguity and more likely
to prefer discursive essays. Although Layman
Table 2: MBTI categorical breakdown for
et al. do not compare their computing
students studying software engineering
course with a psychology course, it would be
(data taken from Layman, Cornwell
reasonable to assume that different teaching
& Williams, 2006).
styles are likely to appeal to computing and
psychology students dependent on the
Myers-Briggs Dimension %
Myers-Briggs dimension that dominates.
Extraversion : Introversion 46 : 54
It is important to recognise that students
Sensing : Intuition 18 : 82 studying for computing degrees are likely to
Thinking : Feeling 75 : 25 have been taught in different ways and may
approach studying in different ways,
Judging : Perceiving 76 : 24
compared to those studying for psychology
degrees. From personal observation,
Layman et al. (2006) discuss each dimension computing students are generally more
with respect to preferred teaching approach familiar with assessments which have defini-
within a software engineering course. For tive answers, while psychology students are
example, as they had almost equal numbers more accustomed to discussing the relative
on the Extraversion : Introversion dimen- merits of both sides of a debate and to
sion, there were equal amounts of group- provide a balanced view rather than a defin-
work (preferred by Extraverts) and itive answer. This would support the exten-
individual work (preferred by Introverts). sive work by Kolb (1981) investigating
With regard to the Sensing : Intuition learning styles and subject discipline. Also,
dimension, which relates to how people from personal experience, psychology
prefer to receive data, they report that most degree students tend to be more open to
of the instructors on the course taught in a furthering their understanding of their own
style that suits Intuitors; by using lectures to learning style, compared to computing
emphasise concepts, as opposed to factual degree students.
data. With regard to the Thinking : Feeling
Conclusions
dimension, thinkers are rational and logical
in their decision-making, while feelers make I would like to conclude by reflecting on my
decisions based on intuition and personal experiences to offer some general tips for
consideration. Therefore, it was expected those about to embark on teaching
that most software engineering students psychology to computing students.
would prefer to learn where materials are As with all interdisciplinary teaching
presented objectively as matters of fact, e.g. (including service teaching), materials need
‘these are the steps of the waterfall process’. to be adapted effectively to provide appro-
In contrast, personal consideration and priate links to the other discipline. In the
emphasis on human elements and social case of computing, psychology materials
relevance are particularly important to need to be linked to topics taught on the
feelers. Finally, on the Judging : Perceiving computing course and to show an awareness
Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008 27
Jacqui Taylor
of the professional context of computing. Finally, it is important to recognise that
Learners appreciate this understanding of students will have a certain perception of
the computing curricula and of topical issues what psychology covers. When I first started
in the computing press. It is important to teaching psychology to computing students,
deliver the materials at the correct level, they used to be less knowledgeable about
taking into account the relevant intended psychology and tended to think the disci-
learning outcomes and educational stage. At pline was only concerned with treating
the pre-degree level, the emphasis needs to psychological disorders. However, the know-
be on practical activities and workshops can ledge and expectations of all students,
be used to demonstrate how interaction including computing students, regarding
design recommendations based on the discipline of psychology has changed
psychology can be put into practice. Indeed, significantly – largely as a result of the media
examples of poor design in well-known representation of psychologists. In the last
computer systems can be used to illustrate five years, reality TV shows frequently feature
where psychology has not been applied to resident psychologists and many documen-
interaction design! At undergraduate level, tary programmes involve psychological
students appreciate more detail as to how consultants. As a result, it is useful at the start
research was conducted and they need to of any contact with computing students to
develop skills to allow them to consider briefly cover what is psychology and what is
different psychological research methods to not psychology and to differentiate between
evaluate computer systems. At postgraduate academic psychology and ‘popular’
level, students are interested in hearing psychology. This helps to contextualise the
about ground-breaking research where wider role of psychologists in the many areas
psychology is being applied to computing, of modern life relating to computing and
but also they appreciate discussing the philo- technology.
sophical debates in computing. It is impor-
Correspondence
tant not to overwhelm students (at any level)
with psychological content but to provide Dr Jacqui Taylor
web-links and references to support the Psychology Research Group,
concepts being covered. Similar to being School of Design, Engineering &
prepared regarding the curriculum and Computing,
educational level of your intended learners, Bournemouth University.
some understanding of the profile of your E-mail: [email protected]
intended learners can assist in developing
psychology materials for computing
students. For example, the style of presenta-
tion of psychology activities can be adapted
to better match the approaches to studying
of computing students.
28 Psychology Teaching Review, 14(1), March 2008
Teaching psychology to computer students
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