ERIC EJ858589: Building on the Cultural and Linguistic Capital of English Learner (EL) Students

2009·0.21 MB·English

by  ERIC

Promising Practices
Building on the Cultural and Linguistic Capital
of English Learner (EL) Students
Katie Brooks & Katya Karathanos
Introduction not be conceptualized as dichotomous. p. 16, 1990). In other words, rather than
Rather, when educators consider what building upon the rich cultural and linguis-
Currently, public schools in the U.S.
approaches and strategies will provide tic capital of EL students, teachers often
are experiencing dramatic increases in the
the best opportunities for particular stu- expect students to adapt to an English-only
number of English learner (EL) students
dents to learn in particular contexts, they classroom environment that reflects White,
they serve. According to the National
must bear in mind that for EL students, middle class, native English speaking
Center for Educational Statistics (NCES,
their native languages and cultures are curricula. As a result, EL students may
2006), between 1979 and 2004, the overall
key resources to draw upon for teaching encounter problems in understanding the
number of school children in U.S. public
both content and language (Lucas & academic language of instruction, and they
schools increased 18 percent. In contrast,
Katz, 1994). They must also think about may undergo difficulty in making mean-
the number of these children who spoke
how the language and culture a student ingful connections among fundamental
a language other than English at home
brings with them is intimately connected concepts in the curriculum to their prior
increased by 162 percent, and the number
to their community, loved ones, and per- knowledge and experiences.
who spoke a language other than English
sonal identity (Delpit, 1988). Currently many teachers take an ad-
at home and who spoke English with diffi-
ditive or contributions approach to multi-
culty increased by 114 percent. Projections
What the Research Says lingual/multicultural education by “adding
have further indicated that school-aged
on” multicultural concepts, themes, and
children who are ELs will constitute an es- For students in the school setting,
perspectives to the curriculum, without
timated 40 percent of the k-12 population learning is a search for meaning using
changing the basic structure of the cur-
in the US by the year 2030 (U.S. Census formal education and one’s own experi-
riculum (Banks, 2003). Yet, culturally
Bureau, 2000). ences. As the brain interacts with the
responsive teaching requires that students’
While an extensive body of research environment, it forms mental structures
cultures, languages, and multiple other
indicates that bilingual education is the based on patterns of understanding, or
cultures are integral components of the
most successful type of programming for schema (Caine & Caine, 1991). When
curricula (Vavrus, 2002) as opposed to
EL students—with some models being the brain encounters new information, it
something extra added to enhance the
more effective than others (Greene, 1998; interprets the information using existing
curricula.
Ramirez, 1992; Ramirez, Yen, & Ramey, schema. Because these schema develop
Teachers must go beyond surface-level
1991; Thomas & Collier, 1997, 2002; Wil- through personal experience, they reflect
inclusion to provide equitable learning
lig,1985), the reality exists that as a result the cultures and experiences of the learner
opportunities for culturally and linguisti-
of factors including shortages of bilingual (Quinn & Holland, 1987). Consequently,
cally diverse students. Teachers who truly
teachers or the representation of multiple learners who have experienced different
embrace culturally responsive pedagogy
native languages within a school district, events and cultural contexts interpret
recognize the importance of helping EL
most EL students spend the majority of the the world in unique ways. Moreover, lan-
students make meaningful connections
school day in English-dominant contexts guage is the primary tool learners use to
between their existing schema and content
with predominantly English-speaking symbolize their unique experiences and
area concepts and skills. Cummins (1996)
teachers (Berube, 2000). thoughts and to communicate with others
explained the consequences of teachers not
While our nation has a long his- (Vygotsky, 1962).
embracing the prior knowledge, languages,
tory of competing ideologies and political Educators often expect EL students
and cultural backgrounds that EL students
controversies related to English immer- to succeed in the classroom without con-
bring to the learning process:
sion (in which the primary language of sidering the ways in which these students’
instruction is English) programs versus experiences, cultures, and languages shape When students’ language, culture and
bilingual education, scholars contend that their schema (Cummins, 1996). Rather experience are ignored or excluded in
classroom interactions, students are im-
these two educational approaches need than recognizing culture and language
mediately starting from a disadvantage.
as essential to EL students’ connections
Everything they have learned about life
Katie Brooks is an assistant professor
between their schema and key content
and the world up to this point is being
in the College of Education at Butler University,
area concepts, educators frequently view dismissed as irrelevant to school learn-
Indianapolis, Indiana, and Katya Karathanos
diverse languages and cultures from a ing; there are few points of connection to
is an assistant professor in the College of Education deficit perspective as “inadequate prepa- curriculum materials or instruction and
at San Jose State University, San Jose, California. ration for learning” (Jones & Fennimore, so students are expected to learn in an
SUMMER 2009
47
Promising Practices
experiential vacuum. Students’ silence language structures necessary to convey 1994; Tikunoff, Ward, van Broekhuizen,
and nonparticipation under these condi- this knowledge in the second language. et al, 1991).
tions have frequently been misinterpreted However, if these same students For example, teachers can encourage
as lack of academic ability or effort, and study the process of photosynthesis in a EL students to use their native languages
teachers’ interactions with students have
second language that has not yet been for academic purposes in small collabora-
reflected a pattern of low expectations
highly developed, they may not understand tive groups; enlist parent support in devel-
which become self-fulfilling. (p. 2-3)
much of what the teacher is saying as the oping native language literacy in the home;
Language, culture, prior knowledge, teacher explains important concepts, or support EL student use of native language
and experience are the foundation of EL the students may have difficulty reading learning logs; and provide instructional
students’ meaning-making processes. or comprehending text in the second lan- materials, environmental print, and read-
Although decoding text is essential for guage. In this case, the students do not ing materials in the native languages of
reading text, reading comprehension understand the language of instruction their EL students. Even for difficult to find
does not occur without meaning making, enough to construct a solid understanding languages and under-funded schools, older
or semantic processes (Goodman, 1996). of the key concepts presented. EL students and parent volunteers can
Grade level academic concepts are more Perhaps the most important area for write both fiction and nonfiction bilingual
accessible to EL students when teachers development in the native language is books for class projects. These books can
provide personally engaging instruction literacy. EL students who have high levels be reproduced and shared with younger
that helps students cognitively connect of literacy in their native languages gener- EL students. They can also serve as re-
new information to their native languages, ally develop high levels of literacy in their sources to translate key vocabulary into
cultures, and experiences (Cummins, 1996; second languages; whereas, EL students students’ native languages for bilingual
Ladson-Billings, 1994). who have low literacy development in their word walls.
native languages often struggle to develop While encouraging native language
The Common Underlying Proficiency: high levels of literacy in their second lan- development and use among students may
Why Native Language Support Works guages (August & Hakuta, 1997). initially seem daunting or present chal-
The common underlying proficiency lenges to monolingual teachers, creative
First and second language develop- explains this correlation between first solutions can help teachers to overcome
ment are interdependent. Cummins (1991) and second language proficiencies. Lit- potential barriers to this practice. The
describes this interdependence between eracy skills such as decoding or making following includes detailed strategies and
first and second language acquisition with inferences transfer between languages. considerations that monolingual teachers,
his theory of the Common Underlying Profi- As a result, students benefit from explicit or teachers who do not speak all of the na-
ciency. This theory proposes that, provided instruction that shows them ways they can tive languages of their students, can utilize
sufficient exposure to the second language, apply literacy skills learned in their first to help EL students learn new concepts
the literacy and cognitive development of languages to literacy tasks in their second and develop their language skills by build-
the first language transfers to the second languages (Bialystock, 1991; Hudelson, ing on students’ cultural and linguistic
language. Cummins (1991) based this the- 1987; Mace-Matluck, 1982). Addition- schema.
ory on extensive research he has conducted ally, teachers can use vocabulary teaching
with bilingual students in Canada, Ireland, strategies that build on their students’ first Strategies for Building
and the Ukraine (Cummins, 1978a, 1978b, languages to help them acquire vocabulary on Cultural and Linguistic Schema
1979, 1980; Cummins & Gulutsan, 1974; in the second language. Vocabulary devel-
Cummins & Mulcahy, 1978). opment in the second language is critical Coding the Text
A host of additional studies have because it is a primary meaning making Students read a text selection. As they
further supported the Common Underly- factor in reading comprehension (Jimenez, read, they should record on sticky notes the
ing Proficiency theory (Bialystock, 1991; Garcia, & Pearson, 1996). kinds of schematic connections that they
Collier, 1989, 1992; Garcia, 1994; Genes-
are making and what the connections are.
see, 1987, 1994; Thomas & Collier, 1997). “But I Don’t Speak Their Language” Since students often develop comprehen-
Empirical evidence from these studies
sion skills more quickly than writing skills,
further indicate that children who receive The implications of the Common Un-
encourage students to write their notes
academic instruction in both their first and derlying Proficiency concept and the differ-
in the native language if they are having
second languages perform better linguisti- ences between first and second language
difficulty doing so in English. (The goal
cally, cognitively, and academically in their acquisition is that EL students need as
here is for students to make meaningful
second language than students who receive much native language support as a school
connections as opposed to write perfectly
instruction in the second language only. and teacher can provide. Unfortunately,
in English).
Learning most effectively occurs in the many teachers are unsure of how they
After students have made their con-
language that the learner knows the best. can support the native languages of their
nections, they place the sticky note next to
The skills and understandings acquired students when the teachers do not speak
the line of text to which they are connect-
in the first language are accessible to a the languages of their students. However,
ing. The kinds of schematic connections
learner in the second language. For exam- even teachers who are not bilingual can
include text-self (T-S) which are personal
ple, if students learn about the process of incorporate use of students’ native lan-
connections, text-text (T-T) which are aca-
photosynthesis in their native languages, guages to promote cognitive, academic, and
demic connections, and text-world (T-W)
they do not have to relearn this concept linguistic development as well as reinforce
which are cultural.
for a second language environment. They a positive self-identity for students (Free-
Next, have students discuss their con-
only need to acquire the vocabulary and man and Freeman, 1993; Lucas & Katz,
nections with a partner or small group.
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Promising Practices
You can follow this activity up by using cognates that they can use to improve their u There are false cognates, in which a
the sticky notes to make a class graphic reading comprehension. word is similar to an English word but not
organizer on a bulletin board (Harvey & related in meaning: bigote—moustache;
Goudvis, 2000). Code-Switching embarazada—pregnant.
EL students who are good readers Strong bilingual readers identify and
Say Something tend to code switch, or to switch between use cognates to help them comprehend text
Place students in pairs. When listen- languages as they speak or write (Gar- while struggling bilingual readers tend
ing to a lecture or reading a text, ask cia, 1998; Heredia & Altarriba, 2001). not to recognize and use cognates (Garcia,
students to stop every five minutes or so, Some teachers erroneously discourage 1998; Jiménez, 1997; Jiménez, García, &
and discuss with their partners the kinds EL students from code switching because Pearson, 1996). Fortunately, studies have
of connections that they are making to they think that this practice will inhibit shown that less successful bilingual read-
the ideas presented. Encourage them to second language acquisition. However, ers who receive instruction in recognizing
make personal, cultural, real-world, and code switching actually promotes second and using cognates as a strategy and apply
prior learning connections. Pair students language acquisition because students these strategies demonstrate increased
who speak the same native languages but are able to express their ideas more com- reading comprehension (Garcia, 1998).
have varying levels of English proficiency pletely. Thus, EL students can benefit from
together (Short, Harste, & Burke, 1996). Additionally, Garcia (1998) found that explicit instruction in using cognates as a
paraphrasing English text in the native meaning making strategy (Garcia & Nagy,
Sketch to Stretch language facilitated EL student reading 1993). Helping students recognize words
comprehension. Translating text word for in English that have roots, or cognates,
After reading or listening to text, have
word, on the other hand, inhibited reading in their native languages can support the
students sketch what the text means to
comprehension. Thus, writing or discuss- reading comprehension of EL students and
them. Encourage students to experiment
ing English text in a student’s own words help them build their vocabulary in the
and assure them that there are many ways
helps students to make personal meaning second language.
to represent personal meanings. Have
from the text; whereas, exact translation
students gather in groups of three to five.
can cause students to focus more on the Highlighting Cognates Strategy
Each student in the group shares his or her
sketch. As the sketch is shared, all other language than on the meaning of what Explain to students that they do not
group members give their interpretations they read. have to understand every word in text in
of the sketch. Once everyone has shared, order to get the main idea. Tell them that
the artist reveals his or her interpretation. Focus on Cognates good bilingual readers know how to look
Repeat the process until everyone in the Another cross linguistic transfer strat- for cognates, or words with roots similar
group has had a chance to share (Short, egy that research has shown to support to those in their native languages, and
Harste, & Burke, 1996). reading comprehension in English has other words they know. Encourage them to
been student recognition and use of cog- use these words, pictures/visuals provided
Cross-Lingustic Strategies nates. Cognates are words that have the with the text, and their prior knowledge to
same root word in two different languages. understand the text. Give students a high-
One way for teachers to support EL Rodriguez (2001) identified several kinds lighter marker and a copy of a content area
students in making meaning from print of cognates (particularly English/Spanish text. Have students highlight the words
is to teach them to use appropriate mean- cognates): they know, including cognates and create
ing-making strategies. EL students can a graphic organizer or write their own sum-
improve their reading comprehension u Some words are spelled identically maries of what they think the main ideas
through the strategic application of read- in both languages, such as fatal, hotel, in the text are. This highlighting can give
actor.
ing strategies (Chamot, 1995; Chamot, teachers a rough idea of what the students
Dale, O’Malley, & Spanos, 1992; Chamot u Some words are spelled nearly the same: understand.
& El-Dinary, 1999; Chamot & O’Malley, contamination—contaminación; evi-
1994). Many of the strategies used in dence—evidencia; castigate—castigar. Cautions about Native Language Use
teaching native English speaking students
u In some words the similarities aren't as
to read also support the literacy develop- apparent: sport—deporte; perilous—peli- Although native language support is a
ment of EL students (Chamot & El-Dinary, groso. crucial strategy for supporting EL students
1999; Chamot & O’Malley, 1994). in content area classes, it is important for
These strategies include skimming for u Some words are more of an oral cognate educators to consider the following issues
than a written cognate. In other words,
information, monitoring comprehension, in providing native language support:
they sound more similar than they appear,
reflecting on what one has learned, clas- such as pleasure—placer; peace—paz. 1. Just because teachers provide
sifying material, linking new information
u Some words are cognates for one mean- text written in the students’ native
to prior knowledge, and summarizing.
ing but not another: letter-letra (letter of languages, it does not mean that the
However, unlike monolingual students, EL
the alphabet); letter-carta (as in written students can understand the text
students can use their native languages to
correspondence). without additional support. Native
help them understand information in the
language text and peer conversation
second language. In other words, they have u Some similarities among words can be
taught to help teach other words: disap- should not be the only strategies that
a variety of cross-linguistic transfer strate-
pear—desaparecer; appear—aparecer. teachers use to facilitate EL student
gies such as code-switching or focusing on
learning.
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Promising Practices
2. The students’ native languages u In what ways do you encourage dents, teachers send a vital message to stu-
may not be their dominant language. your EL students to use their native dents and families that multiculturalism
If EL students have spent a few years languages as a learning tool within and multilingualism are invaluable assets
in the U.S. in English immersion your class? to the classroom, school and community.
programs, they may not have strong
academic language development in u In what ways do you seek out and References
provide native language materials to
their native languages.
support your EL students in learning Antunez, B. (2003). Assessing English language
3. EL students need frequent op- new content? learners in the Great City Schools.Washing-
portunities to interact with native ton, DC: Council of the Great City Schools.
English speakers and to read/write u In what ways are your EL students Auerbach, E.R. (1993). Reexamining English
actively engaged during classroom only in the ESL classroom. TESOL Quar-
in English. Working in small native
instruction? terly, 27, 9-32.
language groups most of the time will
August, D., & Hakuta, K. (1997). Improving
not provide enough engagement with u What cultures and languages are schooling for language minority students.
academic English. represented in the books in your Washington, DC: National Academy of
library and/or classroom? What cul- Science.
4. Teachers need to invest time in
tures, languages, and ethnicities are Banks, J. (2003). Teaching strategies for ethnic
both teaching EL students to col-
represented in posters, textbooks, studies. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
laborate effectively and helping Berube, B. (2000). Managing ESL programs in
and student work?
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Each Language? dence, the optimum age question and some
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Promising Practices
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