ERIC EJ847570: Clicking toward Development: Understanding the Role of ICTs for Civil Society

2006·0.14 MB·English

by  ERIC

Clicking Toward Development:
Understanding the Role of ICTs for Civil Society 53
Evan S. Michelson T
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Abstract well. Not only would it become de rigueurto rn
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The purpose of this article is to analyze, discuss, provide poor, rural communities with computer o
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and assess some of the competing viewpoints workstations and laptops, but the power of con- Te
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and factors regarding the role of new informa- nectivity led to the hope that solutions to the hn
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tion and communication technologies (ICTs) problems of poverty, poor health education, and lo
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within civil society. By outlining the various lack of political involvement might just be a few y
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actions that civil society organizations (CSOs) clicks away. u
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need to take in order to maximize the positive ies
impacts and mitigate the negative consequences Nevertheless, over the very same time span,
that these revolutionary technologies will bring, this rosy picture has sobered quite a bit. CSOs,
it will become clear that the employment and and, more importantly donors, have begun to
utilization of ICTs by civil society has yet to understand that the mere provision of a few
reach an optimal point. However, over the next iMacs and Dell laptops cannot undo years of
fewdecades, while these technologies will marginalization and oppression. In some areas,
inevitably come to transform the development it is difficult enough to predict when the elec-
landscape, the hope is that CSOs will fully inte- tricity and power will function, let alone when a
grate ICTs into the development process and high-speed cable modem connection will be
will come do so with realistic expectations. By installed. Moreover, the potential of using ICTs
adopting an ICT “plan of action,”CSOs could in political activism—an application that was
better harness the power of these new technolo- supposed to act as the “great equalizer” for
gies and, in turn, will be able to more success- those individuals previously unable to partici-
fully apply them towards the promotion of pate in government and, therefore, usher in a
improved human development. newwave of democracy—has yet to be fully
realized. In fact, as Leslie David Simon (2002a)
Introduction: A Light in the Dark? notes in his introduction to Democracy and the
It should not be surprising that over the past Internet,some authoritarian governments, such
fewyears a certain number of civil society as those formerly in Afghanistan and Iraq, are
organizations (CSOs) may have begun to feel as working to restrict the use of these technologies,
if their long, arduous, uphill battle for making therebysuppressing democratic movements and
inroads toward improving the lives of individu- reasserting their power to block civil society’s
als in developing countries was being given an employment of ICTs in promoting free speech
unexpected, yet invaluable, boost. With the and political involvement. Simon describes how
advent of new information and communication these governments have engaged in a number of
technologies (ICTs)—including personal, net- subterfuge attempts, including a wholesale ban-
worked computers, mobile telephones, fiber ning of the Internet, the filtering and censorship
optic cables, the Internet, and email—CSOs of on-line material, requiring the registration of
could not help but think that the general world- websites, regulating encryption devices, and
wide information, communication, and knowl- even criminalizing certain kinds of Internet or
edge revolution would come to trickle down and email use.1The point here is that a number of
positively affect the specific goals they were try- unintended, negative consequences, along with a
ing to accomplish in the realm of human devel- number of undesirable barriers, have arisen that
opment. This optimism compelled CSOs to havehindered the use of ICTs byCSOs and
design their own websites, make policy docu- have come to force a reconceptualization of how
ments available on-line, and initiate the forma- these new technologies fit into future develop-
tion of virtual communities—constituted by ment schemes.
individuals with similar interests—by way of
email and chat rooms. Additionally,the excite- Because of these growing concerns, the pur-
ment over the potential uses of ICTs encouraged pose of this article is to analyze, discuss, assess,
CSOs to integrate these technologies into the and clarify competing viewpoints and factors
fabric of development programs and projects as regarding the role of ICTs within civil society
and to determine various actions that CSOs At first glance, what is so alluring about the
might be able to take that will mitigate some of mainstreaming of these modes of gathering and
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the negative consequences that I have started to distributing information for civil society is that
es sketch out above. To start, I will begin by detail- these technologies appear to emphasize and
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u ing the reasons why ICTs became so attractive demonstrate a number of traits and values that
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to civil society actors in the first place and to mesh well with the development process. Along
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o evaluate some of the more positive and useful these lines, a report produced by the Digital
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hn aspects of ICTs for improving human develop- Opportunity Initiative (DOI), which is sponsored
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Te ment. Second, I will consider the real pitfalls by the United Nations Development Programme,
of that have blocked civil society’s ability to cap- notes that “ICT can be a powerful enabler of
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n ture some of the advantages of ICTs and, in development goals because its unique character-
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o turn, have come to reduce their potential for istics dramatically improve communication and
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e improving development projects and programs. the exchange of information to strengthen and
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T Finally, I will lay out an ICT “plan of action” for create new social and economic networks.”3
civil society and propose a variety of measures Evidently, one of the most central qualities that
that should be undertaken so that additional ben- can bring ICTs inline with certain development
efits from these new technologies can be real- goals is the notion that ICTs are “pervasive and
ized. Though I will draw upon a number of cross-cutting,” and, therefore, that they “can be
examples, I will focus mostly on how these new applied to the full range of human activity…
capabilities affect political involvement, local allowing for tailored solutions—based on per-
participation in government, and the push for sonalization and localization—to meet diverse
democracyaround the world. In the end,it will needs.”4In short, the veryidea that ICTs, and,
become clear that the employment and utiliza- in particular,the Internet and email, can be used
tion of ICTs by civil society has yet to reach an for a number of functions—ranging from read-
optimal point, and it remains to be seen how a ing daily news stories to communicating with
number of key variables and unknowns will family members to distance learning—implies
mature and play themselves out in the coming that developing communities and nations can
years. have nearly instant, all-encompassing access to
anykind of information theymight ever want.
Potential Salvation: How ICTs Could
Rescue the Developing World
It is this ability to enter a flexible network
The rise of ICTs has come to herald a new of information and knowledge dissemination
kind of world, a world in which individuals, that was, and still remains, so encouraging to
companies, communities, and governments can many members of civil society. In her paper
become instantaneously, immediately, and “The Development Divide in a Digital Age,”
directly linked to other individuals, companies, Cynthia Hewitt de Alcántara (2001) mentions
communities, and governments anywhere possibilities that might interest CSOs: for exam-
around the globe. Lying at the heartof global- ple, she notes that mobile phones can allow for
ization, ICTs can be broadlyviewed and defined “minute-by-minute monitoring of local elec-
as facilitating “by electronic means the creation, tions,” thereby leading to the gathering of infor-
storage, management and dissemination of mation that can then be reported over the radio
information.”2While, strictly speaking, the and,in turn, make “a significant difference in
overall notion of ICTs does include older, more the transparencyof electoral processes.”5
traditional forms of communication—television, Moreover, she demonstrates that certain tech-
radio, faxes, newspapers, and magazines—that nologies, including satellite television, voice
th
have existed throughout most of the 20 centu- over the Internet, and digital radio, have expand-
ry, the meaning of the term has changed and has ed “the range of programming available to
begun to relate, more specifically, to the various inhabitants of countries whose governments,
kinds of new, “high” technologies that I listed until recently, could limit television reception to
earlier.Admittedly,as new technologies and afew state-run channels.”6Furthermore, the
modes of communication arise, the characteriza- DOI report describes similar potentials for
tion of what is considered to be a progressive, knowledge sharing and dissemination in the
advanced,and cutting-edge formof ICT will realms of health, education, and economics,
inevitably change, thereby requiring a continual including the ability of local doctors to receive
updating regarding how this term is understood. disease diagnosis and treatment advice on-line
from experts in other countries, the ability of Even though all of the participating CSOs are
local teachers to receive technical and vocational located within Zimbabwe, without the use of
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training remotely, and the ability of local busi- ICTs, these disparate, yet ideologically connect-
nesses to receive information regarding market ed, groups would have had little chance of work- Th
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conditions and best business practices by way of ing together, pooling their strengths, and uniting J
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list-servs and electronic updates. Put together, under a common cause. Since the website is ur
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all of these opportunities have led to a declara- hosted outside of the country, www.kubatana.net al
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tion by CSOs at the World Summit on the has allowed over 200 Zimbabwean CSOs to by- f
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Information Society (WSIS), which notes that pass government control of the media and, sub- c
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“we are conscious that information, knowledge sequently, has provided timely and accurate o
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and the means of communication [for develop- information about the state of human rights g
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ing nations] are available on a magnitude that abuses in Zimbabwe by way of fact sheets, web- S
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humankind has never dreamt of in the past.”7 site links, and even the posting of the diaries of die
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political prisoners.
In particular, ICTs have helped local com-
munities and populations participate in govern- Along these lines, in “Lessons from Latin
ment and become more active in pushing for America,” Javier Corrales (2002) describes how
political change. For instance, with respect to informal social movements banded together by
direct participation in democracy, Simon way of e-petitions and web-based networking
(2002a) claims in “Democracy and the Net” that during the financial crisis in Argentina in 2001-
anumber of governments are “putting their vot- 2002. Corrales notes that “when the [Argentine]
ing systems online and permitting citizens to government froze bank deposits, hundreds of
communicate directly with legislators.”8He neighborhood assemblies (asambles barriales)
illustrates this point with the example of Costa emerged in protest. They created their own web-
Rica, which is attempting to reach 100% voter site (www.cacerolazo.com), which allowed
turnout by offering on-line balloting by way of approximately 180 assemblies to coordinate
computers based in the nation’s various schools. their activities and post their demands.”12
Moreover, in addition to allowing CSOs and Apparently, this effort was so successful that
local citizens to vote, monitor elections, and city officials in Buenos Aires received, and
procure timelynews items, Simon also notes responded,to nearlyfour hundred emails a day,
that these technologies can allowagovernment all of which complained about or demanded the
tobecome more involved with its citizens. In restoration of a previously canceled service.
short, Simon claims that “the Net has the power
to change the way governments operate—forc- Similarly,on an international level, by
ing them to become more democratic [and allowing individuals and groups to communicate
responsible] in the process.”9For example, as with increasing ease across national lines, ICTs
more and more government documents and pro- are breaking down geographical boundaries and
ceedings are placed on-line, information regard- spawning transborder coalitions that can unite
ing how the government works is being “made under a common, mutual cause. In short, ICTs
more easily available to citizens,” thereby imply- are able to link different individuals and com-
ing that it “does not have to pass through the fil- munities around the world to one another, indi-
ter of a civil servant,” which, in turn, reduces the viduals and communities sharing similar mind-
risk that such data could be altered or deleted by sets, beliefs, and value systems. Specifically, the
acorrupt official.10 DOI report reinforces this point that new meth-
ods of communication will continue to allow
The increased presence of ICTs in the democraticallyinclined CSOs to begin working
developing world has also initiated a significant under a broader perspective and to undertake a
trend toward coalition building among CSOs more global approach with respect to advocating
and individuals, on both domestic and interna- for democracy, free speech, and human rights. In
tional levels. For instance, consider the this regard, DOI claims that “ICT can transcend
Kubatana Project of Zimbabwe, which supports cultural and linguistic barriers byproviding indi-
“a website portal that provides Zimbabwean viduals and groups the ability” to integrate their
civil society organizations with an online pres- activities with each other and, therefore, coordi-
ence and a platform to voice their concerns nate more targeted responses against tyrannical
about human rights abuses in their country.”11 or repressive regimes.13
Pippa Norris (2004), in “Giving Voice to the Blocking the Path: Barring the Way for
Voiceless,” supports this notion that “the rise of ICTs in Development
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the Internet may be a particularly important “The world’s poorest two billion people
es development for the process of democratization” desperately need healthcare, not laptops.”18
udi worldwide.14In other words, she claims that in Bill Gates
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“breaking down the traditional boundaries of
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og space and time,” CSOs are able to mobilize As the above quotation from Bill Gates
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hn ICTs and use them to bring about a diverse demonstrates, it is too simplistic to believe that
Tec range of “oppositional voices, new social move- ICTs will solve all of the problems in the devel-
of ments, and transnational advocacy networks.”15 oping world. In fact, while providing an individ-
nal One well-known use of ICTs in this fashion is ual with access to a website or an email account
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ou how antiglobalization activists around the world might go a long way in raising them out of
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e were able to coordinate, manage, and plan poverty, supplying them with good health, and
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T protests and demonstrations against the World helping them choose their governmental repre-
Trade Organization during their meetings in sentatives, it remains the case that a significant
Seattle in 1999 by way of mobile phone text fraction of the world’s population does not have
messaging systems. Additionally, Corrales the opportunity to engage with and utilize these
(2002) describes a similar situation by which the newforms of technology at all.Recent statistics
labor leaders of the Chiapas rebellion in Mexico regarding worldwide Internet use depict that this
have created an international coalition that “rou- technology has only penetrated 11.5% of the
tinely conducts e-mail campaigns against [for- total population, with the majority of users
eign] employers and government agencies” that located in North America, Europe, East Asia,
supportcompanies contributing to the degrada- Australia, and New Zealand.19In Africa, barely
tion of workers’quality of life in that country.16 1% of the population has access to the Internet,
Finally, Hewitt de Alcántara describes how and while Internet access has grown the fastest
ICTs, by way of on-line videos and chat room in Latin America, the Caribbean, and the Middle
discussions, can be used simply to garner sup- East, these regions account onlyfor about 9% of
port and raise international consciousness about worldwide Internet users.20
human rights abuses in countries such as China,
These indicators demonstrate that the devel-
Myanmar (Burma), and Saudi Arabia.17
opment divide between the North and the South
Overall, it should not be surprising that, is being matched—and,in manycases, exacer-
ever increasingly, CSOs are encouraged to bated by—a similar digital divide. As the Civil
employ ICTs in some form, whether it be main- Society Declaration of the WSIS notes, these
taining and preserving international advocacy “newasymmetries” are being mapped onto “the
coalitions, registering complaints with local offi- existing grid of social divides,” including “the
cials, or participating in democratic change. By divide between the North and South, rich and
opening civic discourse to a wider population poor,men and women, urban and rural popula-
and providing transparent, unencumbered access tions,” and, most important in the case of ICTs,
to the inner workings of government, ICTs have “those with access to information and those
assisted in transforming the way previously without.”21In short, even as ICTs become more
voiceless, marginalized groups and individuals pervasive, open, and easily accessible, “the vast
havecome to speak out in support of their own majority of humankind has no access to the pub-
rights and demands. Specifically, the Internet’s lic domain of global knowledge, a situation that
openness, pervasiveness, and ability to create is contributing to the growth of inequality and
social networks has allowed, and will continue exploitation of the poorest peoples and commu-
to allow, for the possibility of achieving human, nities.”22Throughout this section, I will analyze
economic, and political development at an ever- anumber of reasons for this increasingly severe
increasingly rapid, quickened pace. However, as digital divide, and it will turn out that, not sur-
Iwill discuss below, the shining promise of prisingly, many of these rationales relate, once
ICTs to reach such staggering heights has been again, directly to broader issues pertaining to
tempered in recent years by a number of factors, human development.
factors that are inherent not just to ICTs them-
To start, it should be noted that a main rea-
selves but to the development process as a
son why ICTs have yet to reach their full poten-
whole.
tial for assisting in development is that the infra-
structure for their use in developing countries is appears to have effectively helped CSOs in
either weak or nonexistent. As I mentioned earli- Zimbabwe organize and coordinate a response to
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er, most communities lack access to a power the government’s human rights abuses, it is
supply for simple telephone calls, let alone for a unclear how much voice and impact such a proj- Th
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high-speed internet connection. Impoverished ect could have internally, within the country, J
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individuals can barely afford to buy enough food when barely 3.5% of the Zimbabwean popula- ur
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for their own sustenance, let alone a computer or tion has Internet access, let alone the fact that al
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personal digital assistant. Moreover, even if a political pressure and lack of suitable infrastruc- f
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village doespossess a communal laptop or ture requires that the website be hosted in a c
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mobile phone, many individuals do not have more developed nation.24Similarly, while the no
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enough education or training regarding how to Cacerolazo project in Argentina appears to have g
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use these technologies, let alone have the time to pressed the government to respond to individual S
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engage with these devices if this means skipping concerns and demands, that the Internet has die
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work, missing a day of harvest, or ignoring a penetrated only 10.9% of the Argentine popula-
sick family member. tion implies that there are a number of groups
and individuals that cannot participate, even if
As a report by Robert Curtain (2004) for participation only means the sending of an email
the Australian Agency for International or the logging of an on-line complaint.25
Development contends, this problem remains
pressing when one begins to focus on how In addition, these numbers mask the trend
organizations—let alone individuals—that are that only those financially well-off in a country
based in developing countries use ICTs. He haveaccess to ICT sources, therebyfurther indi-
points out that even Southern CSOs are rarely cating that already impoverished, marginalized
able to access these kinds of technologies for individuals and communities are shut out of the
their own organizational needs. In turn, this benefits of these newtechnologies. As Peter
inability for organizations in the developing Levine (2000) argues in “The Internet and Civil
world to engage effectively with ICTs comes to Society,” “People cannot use computers [and
handcuff the ability of CSOs in the developed ICT in general] effectively unless they have
world to employ these technologies, even though money, skills,” and other capabilities that lie at
Northern-based organizations generally have the foundations of human development.26
access to as manyvariations of technology as
they wish. In fact, Curtain notes that the “main In addition to these structural barriers
reasons given by development agencies for low blocking an enhanced position for ICTs in help-
use of ICT by agencies in developing countries” ing to achieveimproved development, there are
range from the somewhat simple, including additional ideological critiques that question
“lack of equipment, poor infrastructure and lim- whether these new technologies and modes of
ited access to Internet services,” to the complex, communication are really able to strengthen
including constraints of gender roles, rigid man- democracy and improve local political participa-
agerial control over ICT access, and inhibitions tion. One argument is put forth by the Platform
about … written … communication.”23 for Communication Rights, “an umbrella group
of international nongovernmental organizations
As Curtain identifies, it can be difficult and local networks active in media and commu-
enough for individuals, CSOs, governments, and nications,” who contend that the growth of ICTs
corporations from developed countries to use within an increasingly interconnected, world-
ICTs—where issues such as reliable power sup- wide “information society” are just “another
plies, infrastructure robustness, and social con- invention of the globalization needs of capital
straints are less pressing—let alone in develop- and their supporting governments.”27This
ing countries, where these more basic, funda- organization has initiated a campaign, entitled
mental concerns are chronic and ever-present. Communication Rights in the Information
Society (CRIS), in support of the notion that
Clearly, these technical obstacles that arise current attempts to spread ICTs and employ
in developing countries can greatlyaffect the them as a central aspect in the development
success or failure of a civil society initiative process is simply “window-dressing on the most
aimed at using ICTs for the purpose of political recent drive to impose a neo-liberal model of
activism or participation in government. For communication in every corner of the globe, …
example, even though the Kubatana project
driven by the needs of transnational corporations ends. For instance, a project that provides twenty
with little more than lip service to real human computers for a village with the hope that these
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needs and ever-growing inequities.”28 machines will reform the lives of the individual
es inhabitants is bound to fail if more foundational
udi While CRIS’s point is that the push for issues, such as transportation access to the cen-
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S employing ICTs in development should be ter of town, personal security, and basic energy
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o viewed as just another seductive method for infrastructure, are not addressed as well. The
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hn international conglomerates and their respective difficulty is that the products of ICTs—comput-
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Te governments to further co-opt, control, and ers, mobile phones, and even fax machines and
of deepen the already stark development divide, I copiers—can be used to provide attractive, allur-
nal am not fully convinced that the exacerbation of ing photography and publicity opportunities for
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ou the power dynamic between the “haves” and the donors without truly addressing more substan-
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e “have-nots” is the only way ICT involvement in tial, long-term problems. These material objects
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T development will play itself out. Clearly, there will be able to accomplish little if other issues in
are a number of corporate and national Goliaths development are not addressed in conjunction,
that have, do, and will continue to use ICTs for issues concerning whether individuals will be
means of repression and subversion. As men- able to read or write, whether women will be
tioned earlier, governments have, do, and will allowed to use the equipment, and whether regu-
continue to try to ban the Internet or restrict lar maintenance will be performed.
communication with the outside world and, evi-
dently, a number of transnational corporations From personal experience, while working in
will resist lowering their prices to help develop- ascience education outreach project in rural,
ing communities enjoy the benefits of ICTs, let poor parts of South Africa, I witnessed many sit-
alone loosen their financial and legal claims to uations along these lines. In multiple schools,
copyrighted and patented material. However, I there were a number of locked storage closets
argue, as the examples of Kubatana, Cacerolazo, filled with computer hard drives, monitors, and
and the Chiapas rebellion have demonstrated, keyboards, all of which were products of some
that there is at least some“leveling” and equal- donor’s desire to “connect” these institutions to
izing aspect inherent to ICTs, the nature of the world at large. However, it was clear that a
which will makeit increasingly difficult for number of underlying factors were never consid-
these corporate and governmental forces to co- ered. First, power irregularities in most schools
opt social and political resistance and participa- ensured that not even the main, land-line tele-
tory movements in the future. Admittedly, it is phones could work. Second, the machines them-
unclear whether ICTs will ever have the ability selves had broken down, and many were either
to makethe Davids of the world fullyand com- outdated or unfixable. Third, the keyboards and
pletelyequal to the Goliaths, but I claim that, to printed instructions were presented solelyin
acertain degree, these technologies have slowly English, even though the students mainly spoke
begun to help initiate this evening-out process. Afrikaans, Zulu, or Xhosa. Finally, and most
telling, the main reason the hardware was kept
However, one of the more subtle and pre- locked away is that the teachers were worried
scient critiques arising out of CRIS’s position is that if the computers were left to remain unat-
the notion that, in many cases, civil society tended in the classrooms, then theywould prob-
incorrectly views these new technologies “as ablybe stolen, damaged, or vandalized.
ends in themselves rather than as enabling
tools.”29Again, the idea here is that ICTs However, even if CSO projects and pro-
should rightlybe deemed as toolsto help the grams correctly find a way to use ICTs as tools
development process and notas the end state or in the development process, there remains a
goal. In other words, ICTs should be regarded as final barrier working to offset the possible posi-
ways of helping people attain health, money, tive impacts of ICTs in development. The com-
education, and democracy and not as the over- plaint here is that these technologies reduce the
riding purpose of a program or project that then incentivefor individuals and communities to
comes to subsume these more vital and essential form strong social ties and, therefore, fail to
objectives. encourage individuals to work together and
strive for a common goal. While ICTs can help
Clearly, it could be quite easy for civil soci- bridge geographical gaps and bring individuals
ety to fall into this trap of mistaking means with
and communities struggling for similar free- links are better than nothing and should be pur-
doms and possessing similar interests into con- sued, regardless of the downfalls. Personally, I
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tact with one another, Levine (2000) offers the am still uncertain regarding how this debate will
counter-argument that ICTs might actually be settled, especially because it remains to be Th
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“replace robust, durable, and emotionally satis- seen whether ICTs actually strengthen social J
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fying social bonds with superficial and contin- ties, by encouraging previously unconnected ur
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gent ones.”30Levine contends that when engag- individuals and communities to learn about one al
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ing with ICTs, “we can withhold practically all other, or weakens social ties, by allowing disin- f
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information about ourselves…we can break off terested citizens or officials to exit any form of c
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contact at will…and we can shield ourselves public discourse by simply clicking-off and o
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from the consequences of what we say,” all of shutting-down. g
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which distort one’s ability to enter into satisfy- S
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ing relationships with other individuals and may However, I do support the notion that ICTs die
weaken any sense of commonality and together- alone cannot do the development trick. At some s
ness.31 level, real interpersonal engagement by way of
human-to-human interaction is necessary to
If such an assessment holds, civil society’s address the development divide, which, in turn,
ability to effectively use ICTs to promote good will go a long way in addressing the digital
governance and democratic change might be divide. I contend that when making evaluations
diminished, primarily because such an argument regarding the appropriateness of new technolo-
implies that community and capacity building gies in the context of development, civil society
are weakened bythe presence of these newtech- must moveawayfromthe dogmatic extremes:
nologies. For example, if a CSO is trying to while ICTs might not be magic potions to cure
bring about a greater understanding of cultural all of the world’s ills, they are not pointless, use-
differences and similarities in an ethnically less enterprises that can be easilydismissed.
diverse society, then an incessant reliance on Instead, I argue that ICTs as a group should be
ICTs by way of shared websites and chat groups recognized as highly-valuable, though still high-
might actually work againstthe stated goals ly-flawed, tools for achieving certain develop-
since the use of these technologies might block ment goals, and, therefore, they must be critical-
the formation of strong interethnic ties. The idea lyanalyzed so that their positive and negative
here is that ICTs might not reallypromote social traits can be teased out and better understood.
connection but that they simply create weak,
Changing the Landscape: What
fragile, and quite tenuous bonds that could
Should Civil Society Do?
splinter in times of great stress or duress. With
Though I have already described a number
respect to the Cacerolazo project in Argentina,
of the benefits and pitfalls of using ICTs in
one could argue that if the onlyoutcrythe city
development, there appear to be a few areas that
government of Buenos Aires received during the
civil society is capable of addressing so that
financial crisis was in the form of email, then it
improvements can be made in how these tech-
is quite conceivable that officials could simply
nologies are applied in the future. Obviously, the
delete most of these messages and ignore their
following “plan of action” is not a complete,
content. Along these lines, ICTs might actually
comprehensivelist, nor is it the case that these
encourage governments to distance themselves
suggestions remain unproblematic. However, the
from trulyinteracting with their citizens, espe-
ensuing recommendations could hopefullyhelp
cially since these technological links might only
civil society prioritize its actions and identify
be able to generate superficial, digitallycontin-
key areas of concern.
gent relationships.
First, CSOs need to help improveand build
Iadmit that determining the validity of such
basic technology infrastructure in developing
an argument is challenging. Some might assert
countries prior to introducing high-speed, cut-
that if the best kind of connections CSOs can
ting-edge versions of ICTs to these regions.
hope to create in these days of mass electronic
Simon (2002b) notes that this type of founda-
communication are superficial, digitally contin-
tional development requires considerations as
gent relationships, then perhaps the whole sys-
diverse as “training for professionals,” develop-
tem needs to be dumped and our priorities need
ing “applications in critical areas such as health
to be reevaluated. On the other hand, some
care, job placement, and food distribution,” and
might contend that these Internet and email
providing “funding and expertise to build test- which, historically, might have shied away from
beds for public access systems.”32To be sure, or have been afraid of using these technolo-
60
this advice might require CSOs to re-evaluate gies—are no longer intimidated by their pres-
es their already existing strategies and, quite possi- ence. In his study on how CSOs attempt to cap-
di
u bly, lead them to understand that it might be ture the advantages of ICTs, Curtain (2004) dis-
t
S
beneficial, in a certain case, to help establish covered that while 90% of the organizations he
y
g
o energy grids or basic telephone capabilities prior consulted used email as a major form of com-
ol
hn to a DSL Internet connection. Clearly, though a munication, “only a . . . minority of the respon-
c
Te renewed focus on “the basics” of technology dent organizations (10%) were making use of a
of might imply that CSOs cannot move ahead with database management application such as finan-
nal certain kinds of projects as quickly as they cial management software.”36The point here is
r
u
o would like, it does mean that whatever technolo- that if CSOs are not comfortable employing new
J
e gies areemployed will rest on a solid, stable forms of communication services, such as video
h
T
infrastructure and, hopefully, will be sustainable conferencing and electronic newsgroups, inter-
and built to last over the long term. nally, then it will be quite challenging for CSOs
to promote the use of ICTs in developing com-
Asecond role for CSOs in the realm of munities. Along these lines, CSOs should ensure
technology access in the developing world is to that their websites are not forums merely used
become involved, as Hewitt de Alcántara (2001) for displaying basic contact information and
notes, in “international policy forums that play a their mission statements. Instead, CSOs must
major role in determining the likelihood that make certain that these Internet portals become
low-income countries and disadvantaged groups trulyinteractive experiences, allowing the exter-
can use ICTs effectively.”33In particular, CSOs nal world to post comments, access policydocu-
need to fight the growing tendency in the devel- ments, and link to other information sites. Only
oped world to comprehensively copyright and such an improved, internal shift in thinking
patent protect information, thereby blocking the within CSOs of the developed world will allow
free and open use of such innovations in lower for an associated improved, external shift in how
income, less technologically advanced regions of these organizations are able to utilize ICTs in
the world. As the CRIS campaign argues, civil the developing world.
society needs to exert pressure “at local levels to
ensure that IPR [intellectual property regime] Finally,CSOs need to applypolitical pres-
legislations respond to social and cultural sure on the leaders of less democratic nations
needs.”34Inaddition, CSOs need to ensure that and advocate for the removal of heavy-handed
the traditional, indigenous knowledge present in government control and oversight of ICTs. As
developing communities is not somehow sold- Norris (2004) claims, whether it be arguing in
offand copyrighted,thereby reassuring that this favor of freedom of the press or supporting the
cultural heritage cannot be taken away and breakup of government-owned communication
removed from the public domain. The hope is monopolies, CSOs need to help guarantee that
that CSOs—in addition to working with the populations in the developing world are offered
World Trade Organization, the International “widespread access to the mass media” and that
Telecommunications Union, and the World excessive legislative oversight of ICTs is not
Intellectual Property Organization to reform allowed to “reinforce the control of powerful
technology trade regulations, redistribute world- interests and governing authorities.”37Simon
wide telephone revenues, and better organize the (2006) supports the notion that CSOs undertake
digital spectrum, respectively—will also be able an even stronger social advocacyrole in this
to “nurture and promote development-friendly area and, in turn, help to “raise the international
approaches to intellectual creativity, e.g., open temperature to protect free expression and the
source, copyleft, and collective ownership.”35 natural openness of the global Net.”38Though
certain governments have and will continue to
Third, I contend that in order to reap the full try to restrain Internet access, monitor email
benefits of ICTs in development, CSOs, even communication, and restrict chat-room use,
those from the developed North, need to become CSOs must become committed to incorporating
more ICT-literate themselves. This suggestion support for such deregulation into their wider
implies that a significant transformation in orga- mandate of promoting democracyand combat-
nizational culture needs to occur so that CSOs— ing the oppression of free speech.
In conclusion, though I have analyzed the though, as a Michael Edwards (2004) notes in
positive and negative aspects of various ICTs his book Civil Society,“the rapid expansion in
61
and weighed their promises versus their draw- access to information technology [by civil socie-
backs, I still assert that these new technologies ty]…has not yet been [fully] translated into the Th
e
will inevitably transform the landscape of devel- development of public spheres committed to J
o
opment in unknown ways over the next few resolving social and economic problems across ur
n
decades. The idea here is that, hopefully, CSOs societies,” I argue that evolution in this direction al
o
will come to not only use ICTs to help foster has already begun.39In the end, the hope is that f
T
e
democracy but that they will do so with realistic CSOs, by adopting some kind of ICT “plan of c
h
n
expectations. However, the only way such a sen- action,” will be able to harness the power of o
lo
sible, practical path can be chosen is if CSOs are these new technologies and, in turn, will be able g
y
wary of the critique that the means, the tech- to apply them toward the promotion of superior S
t
u
nologies themselves, cannot and must not be international human development. die
s
confused with the end state, namely, human
development. What is so intriguing is that even Evan S. Michelson is a Research Associate
newer, as-of-yet unknown varieties of ICTs may at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for
come along and offer currently inconceivable Scholars, Washington, D.C., in the Foresight and
possibilities for the developing world. In turn, Governance Project’s Project on Emerging
successive generations of these technologies Nanotechnologies. He is a Member-at-large of
may carry with them the ability to bridge the Epsilon Pi Tau.
existing digital, development divide even quick-
er than wecould ever hope for now. CSOs will
playacritical role in helping us movein the
direction of such a promising future. Even
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Notes
1Leslie David Simon, “Preface,” in Simon, Leslie David, Democracy and the Internet: Allies or
Adversaries?WoodrowWilson Center Press: Washington, D.C., 2002, pp. vii-xii, p. viii.
2Richard Curtain, “Information and Communications Technologies: Help or Hindrance?” available at
http://www.developmentgateway.com.au/pdf/ict/CurtainICT4DJan04.pdf, Australian Development
Gateway, January 13, 2004, accessed on April 19, 2004, p. 11.
3Digital Opportunity Initiative, “Creating a Development Dynamic,” available at http://www.opt-
init.org/framework/DOI-Final-Report.pdf, July 2001, accessed April 19, 2004, p. 9.
4Digital Opportunity Initiative, p. 9.
5Cynthia Hewitt de Alcántara, “The Development Divide in a Digital Age: An Issues Paper,” avail-
able at http://www.unrisd.org/80256B3C005BCCF9/httpNetITFramePDF?ReadForm&parentu-
nid=19B0B342A4F1CF5B80256B5E0036D99F&parentdoctype=paper&netitpath=80256B3C005B
CCF9/(httpAuxPages)/19B0B342A4F1CF5B80256B5E0036D99F/$file/hewitt.pdf, Technology,
Business, and Society Programme Paper Number 4, United Nations Research Institute for Social
Development, August 2001, accessed April 21, 2004, p. vi.
6Hewitt de Alcántara, p. vi.
7Civil Society Declaration to the World Summit on the Information Society, “Shaping Information
Societies for Human Needs,” available at http://www.wsis2005.org/wsis/documents/summit/WSIS-
CS-Decl-25-2-04-en.pdf, World Summit on the Information Society, Geneva, Switzerland,
December 8, 2003, accessed April 20, 2004, p. 4.
8Simon, “Democracy and the Net: A Virtuous Circle?” in Democracy and the Internet,pp. 1-29, p.
13.
9Simon, “Democracy and the Net: A Virtuous Circle?” p. 12.
10Simon, “Democracy and the Net: A Virtuous Circle?” p. 12.
11Bridges.org, “The Kubatana Project of Zimbabwe: Case Study Series on ICT-enable Development,”
available at http://www.bridges.org/iicd_casestudies/kubatana/index.html, accessed April 19, 2004,
p.1.
12Javier Corrales, “Lessons from Latin America,”in Democracy and the Internet,pp. 30-66, pp. 39-
40.