ERIC EJ842387: Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Teacher Effectiveness: Implications for Professional Development

10 Pages·2003·0.2 MB·English

by  ERIC

Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Teacher Effectiveness:
Implications for Professional Development
Nikki Bray-Clark Reid Bates
Louisiana Department of Education Louisiana Department of Education
Abstract
In an era of increasing accountability demands for teachers and students professional development will be the key
to success in school reform initiatives as administrators struggle with improving the current teaching force. Research
has shown that teacher efficacy is an important variable in teacher effectiveness that is consistently related to teacher
behaviors and student outcomes. Furthermore, it has been shown that schools with high performance professional
development integrate key dimensions that support and reinforce skill development and efficacy beliefs. It is the
contention of this paper that the framework of professional development for teachers should include self-efficacy as a
theoretically sound focus of training designs aimed at improving teacher competence and by extension improving
student outcomes.
The changes necessary to promote meaningful should be explicitly included as a central focus in the
and substantive educational improvement are both professional development of teachers. We argue that
fundamental and systemic. Because change and re- teacher in-service training should not only develop
form in education continues to be at the political and implement professional development activities
forefront, new challenges are emerging for policy aimed at building positive efficacy beliefs but should
makers and administrators across the country. For also use such beliefs as an indicator of training suc-
example, more challenging standards, high stakes cess (i.e., a valuable outcome of training). Research
testing, and school accountability are all pressuring substantiating the link between self-efficacy and tea-
administrators to highlight the key linkage between cher effectiveness is briefly reviewed and sugges-
teacher effectiveness and student achievement. This tions are made about how teacher development
has led to a rekindled emphasis on a timeless cer- activities, particularly in-service training, can be re-
tainty: if students are to achieve high standards then oriented to include the development of teacher self-
no less can be expected of their teachers (National efficacy.
Commission on Teaching & America’s Future, 1996).
The result has been a renewed interest in the ongo- Criticisms of Current In-Service Training Practice
ing professional development of teachers, particu- Although conceptually the value of professional
larly high quality in-service training, and an accom- development activities for overall improvements in
panying concern about how to design and deliver teacher effectiveness has been recognized, in practice
this training in ways that improve teaching and the capacity of current professional development
learning. Indeed, creating stable, high-quality pro- models, particularly in-service teacher training, to
fessional development experiences for teachers has enhance teacher effectiveness has been limited. The
become a major concern as communities, states, and continuing professional development opportunities
the nation struggle with ways to improve the quality available to teachers have been criticized as generat-
of education. ing little or no improvement on subsequent student
The substance and outcomes of many current learning (U.S. Department of Education, 1998). Pro-
teacher professional development opportunities fessional development and in-service training efforts
have been soundly criticized suggesting the transfor- have tended to lack continuity across time. For ex-
ation of current patterns is a critical challenge (Feist- ample, Senge (1990) notes that one serious deficiency
ritzer, 1999). This paper argues that the teacher self- has been school districts’ uncritical and fragmented
efficacy is a key driver of teacher effectiveness and adoption of fads, fancies, and popular (but un-
Volume XXVI • Number 1 • Fall 2003 13
Nikki Bray-Clark & Reid Bates
proven) innovations. This criticism is consistent with largely dependent on personal agency, or how
portrayals of in-service teacher training as mass- teachers define tasks, employ strategies, view the
marketed, flavor-of-the-month experiences that are possibility of success, and ultimately solve the prob-
disconnected from one another and fail to build on lems and challenges they face. It is this concept of
previous learning (Darling-Hammond, 1999). In- personal agency—the capacity of teachers to be self-
deed, the state of professional development for organizing, self-reflective, self-regulating and proac-
many teachers consists of disconnected, packaged- tive in their behavior—that underlies the importance
prescription one-shot workshops conducted on “in- of self-efficacy as a critical component in teacher
service days” in which teachers passively attend to effectiveness. The link between personal agency and
outside “experts” instructing them on topics that do a teacher’s efficacy beliefs lies in personal experience
little to deepen their subject matter knowledge or and a teacher’s ability to reflect on that experience
teaching skill (Garet, Birman, Porter, Desimone, Her- and make decisions about future courses of action.
man, & Yoon, 1999). These efforts have offered little
continuity in building effective teaching practice, The Meaning of Self-Efficacy
have not provided adequate opportunities for teach- The construct of self-efficacy refers to an individ-
ers to reflect on practice with knowledgeable col- ual’s belief in his or her capability “to organize and
leagues (WestEd, 2000), and have not been closely execute the course of action required to manage
linked to the content, activities, or challenges of prospective situations” (Bandura, 1997, p. 2). It is a
what teachers need to know and be able to do for task-specific belief that regulates choice, effort, and
their students (National Commission on Teaching & persistence in the face of obstacles and in concert
America’s Future, 1996). As Mathew Miles puts it, with the emotional state of the individual. The task-
specific focus of self-efficacy distinguishes it from
A good deal of what passes for professional more global concepts such as self-esteem or confi-
development in schools is a joke—one that we’d dence. An individual’s efficacy beliefs are built from
laugh at if we weren’t trying to keep from cry- diverse sources of information that can be conveyed
ing…. In short, it’s pedagogically naïve, a de- vicariously through social evaluation as well as
meaning exercise that often leaves its partici- through direct experience (Bandura, 1986).
pants more cynical and no more knowledgeable, Personal efficacy judgements have been found to
skilled, or committed than before. (1995, p. viii) have substantial predictive power for performance
across a range of tasks and behaviors (Stajkovic &
The bottom line is that teachers want and need prac- Luthans, 1998). In addition, self-efficacy beliefs are
tical in-service activities that address their genuine seen as important elements in many current views of
needs in the classroom, make them better teachers, motivation (Graham & Weiner, 1996). They have al-
and that improve student outcomes. This must in- so been found to mediate a number of individual
clude coherent, relevant coursework that is tied to variables relevant to teacher effectiveness such as job
real-world practice and that includes learning expe- satisfaction, intention to quit the job, training and job
riences that build both teacher competence and con- adjustment in newcomers (Saks, 1995), and the con-
fidence (WestEd, 2000). We believe that using teach- nection between conscientiousness and ongoing
er self-efficacy as an organizing concept around learning (Martocchio & Judge, 1997). These and
which teacher in-service training can be designed other characteristics of self-efficacy beliefs suggest
and evaluated presents a viable and promising the construct holds considerable promise for the
means for advancing toward this end. improvement of teacher development efforts.
Teacher Effectiveness and Self-Efficacy A Summary of Self-Efficacy Research
Teaching by its very nature involves solving ill- Teacher self-efficacy studies began over twenty
defined problems that are complex, dynamic, and years ago with the RAND researchers’ evaluation of
non-linear. Consequently teacher effectiveness is whether teachers believed they could control the re-
14 The Professional Educator
Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Teacher Effectiveness
inforcement of their actions (Armor, Conry-Osegue- tive tasks and interpersonal skills (Gist, Bavetta, &
ra, Cox, King, McDonnell, Pascal, Pauly, & Zellman, Stevens, 1990), both critical factors in teacher effec-
1976). The study of teacher self-efficacy has evolved tiveness. Research has also shown that individuals
over the years and has revealed a wealth of informa- with higher levels of self-efficacy perform better in
tion indicating that self-efficacy may contribute to training (Gist, 1986) and that pre-training interven-
teacher effectiveness in a number of ways. First, tions aimed at raising task specific self-efficacy can
evidence suggests that positive self-efficacy beliefs significantly improve performance during training
can increase the extent to which teachers are willing (Gist, Schwoerer, & Rosen, 1989). In addition, teach-
to transfer skills learned during in-service training to ers high in self-efficacy have been found to exhibit
the classroom. For example, research on employee higher levels of professional commitment (Coladar-
training has demonstrated that interventions aimed ci, 1992), another factor suggesting they may be
at raising self-efficacy with regard to specific future more motivated to attend, participate in, and learn
behaviors significantly increased the likelihood indi- in in-service training.
viduals will exhibit those behaviors on the job (Eden A number of studies have demonstrated that
& Kinnar, 1991). Research with teachers has shown teachers with high levels of self-efficacy regarding
that those high in teaching self-efficacy tend to ex- their ability to teach can produce superior student
plore more alternative methods of instruction, seek achievement across a range of academic subjects. For
improved teaching methods, and experiment more example, Ross, Hogaboam-Gray, and Hanay (2001)
extensively with instructional materials (Allinder, demonstrated that students taking a computer skills
1994). course with a teacher who had high self-efficacy for
Research also suggests that self-efficacy beliefs computer skills instruction performed better aca-
can enhance a teacher’s ability to respond effectively demically than students with a teacher who had low
to stressful and challenging situations. For example, self-efficacy for the same instruction. High self-effi-
research has indicated that teachers with strong, cacy teachers are also more apt to produce better
positive efficacy beliefs about their teaching ability student outcomes because they are more persistent
are more likely to take risks and use new techniques in helping students who are having difficulty (Po-
(Guskey, 1988; Stein & Wang 1988), and to experi- dell & Soodak, 1993; Soodak, & Podell 1993) and are
ment and persist with challenging strategies that less likely to be critical of students that make errors
may have a positive effect on student achievement (Ashton & Webb, 1986). Teachers with strong self-
(Hani, Czerniak, & Lumpe, 1996; Ross, 1992). These efficacy beliefs have also been shown to be better
findings are consistent with research that has shown organized, to engage in more effective planning
that individuals who have high, positive efficacy (Allinder, 1994), and are more likely to set high per-
beliefs feel more challenged but less threatened by formance standards for themselves as well for their
stressful conditions than those with low self-efficacy students (Ross, 1995).
(Jerusalem & Mittag, 1995). There are also indica- Finally, research suggests teacher self-efficacy
tions that efficacy beliefs can influence how hard has important implications for overall school effec-
and how long an individual will persevere at a par- tiveness. Not only do teachers with high self-efficacy
ticular task, how resilient people will be when faced appear be more prevalent in higher performing
with obstacles, and the amount of stress or anxiety schools (Olivier, 2001) but there is evidence that
they will experience in a given situation (Pintrich & teacher self-efficacy may be a key mediating factor
Schunk, 1995). between a school’s climate and professional culture
There is evidence that self-efficacy beliefs can and its educational effectiveness (Bobbett, 2001;
influence the extent to which a teacher in-service Tshannan-Moran, Hoy, & Hoy, 1998). This raises
training program is ultimately effective in terms of interesting questions about the possibility of impor-
the acquisition of knowledge and skills. For exam- tant and substantial cross-level efficacy-performance
ple, increases in self-efficacy have been linked to relationships in which individual self-efficacy levels
improved post-training performance for both cogni- of teachers may both be affected by and influence
Volume XXVI • Number 1 • Fall 2003 15
Nikki Bray-Clark & Reid Bates
the collective efficacy of departments or schools as a past performance accomplishments resulting from
whole. previous experiences or training), vicarious experi-
ence, social/verbal persuasion such as that resulting
Self-Efficacy and Implications for the Design of from collaboration and performance-related correc-
In-Service Teacher Training tive feedback, and physiological arousal including
This brief review of research indicates there is a changes in emotional states such as anxiety, fear, or
substantial body of evidence suggesting that self- positive anticipation (Bandura, 1982).
efficacy can be an important predictor of teacher Enactive mastery is perhaps the most influential
success in in-service training, a valuable process source of efficacy beliefs because it is experiential in
variable to be considered during training, and a nature and is rooted in past performance accom-
desirable outcome of in-service training. As we have plishments (e.g., training or prior on-the-job experi-
seen, the development of teacher self-efficacy can ences). The value of enactive mastery is that, when
lead to a number of important outcomes. More im- faced with similar situations, individuals rely on
portantly, the nature of self-efficacy further suggests perceptions of past mastery to produce information
the presence of a potentially valuable causal loop or that is used to make judgments about present capa-
reinforcing feedback cycle in which initial increases bilities. Thus, for example, prior teaching successes,
in self-efficacy beliefs lead to increased teacher effec- particularly in the face of adversity, help establish
tiveness that in turn enhances subsequent self-effi- and strengthen positive efficacy beliefs. Less success-
cacy beliefs (Bandura, 1991). This positive, cyclic ful past performance may create doubts about per-
efficacy-performance spiral is important because it sonal ability and could undermine self-beliefs of
strongly suggests that self-efficacy will be a critical current capability (Wood & Bandura, 1989b).
component in the ongoing professional develop- The implications of enactive mastery for teacher
ment of teachers, and that directing resources at in-service are relatively straightforward: the goal
enhancing teacher self-efficacy can initiate and sus- should be to design and implement in-service train-
tain an ongoing process of individual improvement. ing that assures teachers will get adequate opportu-
We therefore believe the development of teacher nities to master new teaching techniques and con-
self-efficacy through in-service training is important tent before they are expected to implement them in
not only for immediate outcomes but also because the classroom. Efficacy theory and research suggest
such an approach lays the foundation for continuous some ways of doing this may be more effective (in
improvements in teacher effectiveness. terms of developing efficacy beliefs) than others. For
example, we know that providing mastery experi-
Building Teacher Self-Efficacy Through In-Service ences in training typically involves the use of skill
Training practice with a focus on how to best use practice to
Incorporating a focus on the development of generate both learning and subsequent skill applica-
teacher self-efficacy represents an important evolu- tions. The ‘practice’ component of many in-service
tion in the design of teacher in-service training that training programs has been criticized as either non-
can improve teacher effectiveness and ultimately existent or of limited relevance (Garet et al., 1999). A
enhance student achievement. However, little has focus on efficacy development suggests this compo-
been written about how teacher professional devel- nent needs to be strengthened significantly. We sug-
opment, particularly in-service training, can be re- gest the enactive mastery component of in-service
oriented to include self-efficacy as an organizing training is of critical importance and that the appli-
construct or framework. The next section of this cation of learning during training should be both
paper examines the implications that a focus on self- well planned and challenging. When teachers are
efficacy has for the design of in-service teacher train- challenged in using their learning during training
ing. (but can still do so successfully) they are likely to
Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) outlines develop stronger efficacy beliefs and are more likely
four sources of self-efficacy: enactive mastery (e.g., to use that learning when they return to the class-
16 The Professional Educator
Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Teacher Effectiveness
room (Schmidt & Bjork, 1992). In addition, task vari- vehicles that may contribute to the development of
ety and ordering will be important elements in train- teacher efficacy beliefs. For example, there is increas-
ing settings in which teachers are pushed to use new ing interest in helping pre-service and in-service
skills immediately. Varying the order in which tasks teachers develop skills that will enable them to teach
are practiced and increasing the variations (e.g., from a more global and multicultural perspective. A
form or context) of that task can create intentional number of simulations have emerged from the field
challenges that deepen learning (through the in- of cross-cultural training that could be used to de-
creased information processing requirements associ- velop teacher efficacy beliefs along these lines. Ex-
ated with these variations) and foster task-related amples include Bafa Bafa (Shirts, 1973), Barnga
self-efficacy. Suggestions such as these are generally (Thiagarajan, 1984), the Albatross (Gouchenour,
consistent with the recognition that a fundamental 1977) and others that have enjoyed some application
requirement for effective teacher training is the ac- in teacher training contexts (e.g., see Cannella &
tive participation of learners in the learning process Reif, 1994). These simulations typically involve role-
through interaction with peers and instructors, con- plays that encourage participants to interact verbally
necting learning with past and current experience, or non-verbally to solve problems or achieve goals,
and the active application of new learning (Sileo, followed by in-depth discussions that help partici-
Prater, & Luckner, 1998). pants process what they observed, felt, and learned.
The use of simulations represents another poten- Again, the active experience coupled with subse-
tial design element that focuses on providing mas- quent cognitive processing of behavioral informa-
tery experiences as a means of learning that has the tion lays a strong foundation for the development of
potential to increase teacher self-efficacy. Simula- positive efficacy beliefs.
tions have been used in a wide variety of training In general, the computer-based and experiential
programs (Jacobs & Dempsey, 1993) including pre- simulations such as the ones discussed here can be
service and in-service teacher training. For example, effective in the development of teaching-related
Strang and colleagues have developed and studied efficacy and transfer of the complex skills like those
computer-based simulations for nearly 20 years to needed for effective teaching. On both counts, their
help teachers develop a variety of knowledge and value lies not in the extent to which they closely
skills. These have ranged from simulations devel- mimic the application environments, but their ability
oped to provide effective and timely lesson-related to include the most important stimulus attributes,
feedback to students (Strang & Loper, 1983), pacing address job-relevant learning objectives, and involve
lesson activities (Strang, Badt, Loper, & Richards, specific, positive feedback and processing of behav-
1985), classroom management (Murphy, Kauffman, ioral information during and after the experience.
& Strang, 1987), to understanding ethnic and gender A second source of self-efficacy information,
issues in the classroom (Strang & Yeh, 1995). Simula- vicarious experience, also suggests various options
tions such as these typically combine software, com- for the design of teacher in-service training. Vicari-
puter technology, and learning principles in ways ous experience capitalizes on the notion that an indi-
that are consistent with the development of positive vidual’s efficacy beliefs can be enhanced through the
efficacy beliefs. They stress hands-on, realistic expe- observation of a significant model engaged in an
riences that are coupled with clear and effective activity that they perceive as being aligned with
feedback. Both of these factors are central to the their needs and capabilities. Thus, part of one’s vi-
development of efficacy beliefs. The former because carious experience involves the social comparisons
it provides relevant mastery experiences and the made with other individuals. These comparisons
latter because the cognitive processing of behavioral provide powerful referents useful in the develop-
feedback provides “confirmatory behavioral evi- ment of self-perceptions of competence (Schunk,
dence” (Lindsley, Brass, & Thomas, 1995) that can 1983). This suggests that efficacy-focused in-service
influence subsequent task performance. training should include activities that provide teach-
Other types of simulations also hold promise as ers with opportunities to observe other teachers
Volume XXVI • Number 1 • Fall 2003 17
Nikki Bray-Clark & Reid Bates
successfully and unsuccessfully engaging in teach- sional development activities. For example, Killion
ing behaviors that they will be expected to adopt. (1999) notes that the amount of informal learning in
This is important, first, because the cognitive pro- schools that have won national awards for model
cessing of positive and negative performance infor- professional development is outstanding. In these
mation (i.e., observing both success and non-suc- schools, conversations, collaborative planning ses-
cess) enhances an individual’s ability to engage in sions, team meetings, peer observations, mentoring
analysis and self-correcting patterns of behavior. relationships, and a variety of other unplanned col-
Second, recent interest has been focused on collabo- legial encounters provide valuable avenues for
rative training techniques that draw on the features learning and for receiving and providing the kind of
of small group interaction in ways that benefit the verbal support and encouragement that can effec-
learning process. Collaborative training protocols, tively build positive efficacy beliefs. Principles also
such as the use of dyads or triads to maximize learn- have a role to play here as supporters and reinforc-
ing through peer interaction, have been shown to ers of teacher learning. By setting high expectations,
provide vicarious learning opportunities that can encouraging teachers, and fostering a helpful, colle-
take the place of hands-on mastery experiences gial culture they can maximize the capacity of posi-
(Shebilske, Gawlick, & Gluck, 1998). These ap- tive verbal judgements to shape a teacher’s efficacy
proaches not only represent a potentially important beliefs.
source of self-efficacy but also an avenue through Because self-efficacy beliefs are intertwined with
which the efficiency of teacher in-service training physiological states (each are highly dependent on
could be improved. For example, there is evidence one another), physiological states such as anxiety,
that such techniques can reduce instructional time stress, and fatigue provide other potentially impor-
and resources by as much as one-half (Shebilske, tant sources of efficacy information. For example,
Regian, Arthur, & Jordan, 1992). strong emotional reactions to a task provide cues
Although a relatively less robust source of effi- about the anticipated success or failure of the out-
cacy information than mastery or vicarious experi- come (Pajares, 1996). The implication for in-service
ences, verbal persuasion also represents a potentially training is the apparent need to provide a safe envi-
valuable tool for cultivating the efficacy beliefs of ronment in which teachers feel they may learn in a
teachers. The notion here is that the communication non-threatening, cooperative manner. Providing a
of verbal judgements from respected or influential safe, non-threatening, supportive environment is as
others can affect an individual’s self-efficacy beliefs. simple as allowing teachers time to interact and
This kind of communication should not be confused establish rapport with each other and with their
with superficial, hollow praise for the sake of bol- trainers that facilitates an environment that is risk
stering self-beliefs. Bandura (1986), for example, free, but still allows a free flow of ideas, opportuni-
cautions against the use of artificial praise and advo- ties for success and feedback. Skilled efficacy build-
cates only sincere and valid verbal appraisals. In ers—colleagues, staff, and administrators—do more
fact, it is usually easier to weaken self-efficacy beliefs than convey positive and compelling feedback: they
through negative appraisals than to strengthen such work to structure learning and application activities
beliefs through positive encouragement. Verbal that bring about success. This type of environment
persuasion can thus change self-efficacy beliefs for will enhance self-efficacy if teachers feel that mis-
the better only when the behavior-related informa- takes they make in training will not reflect badly
tion is both compelling and is delivered in a manner upon them or result in punitive actions, and that the
that disrupts the preexisting disbelief in one’s capa- learning experience will improve their professional
bilities (Bandura, 1997). knowledge and skills.
Verbal persuasion as a source for building posi-
tive efficacy beliefs is most easily seen in informal Award-Winning Professional Development
kinds of learning that are characteristic of many Schools
schools recognized for their outstanding profes- Model Professional Development Award-win-
18 The Professional Educator
Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Teacher Effectiveness
ning schools (Killion, 1999) exhibit a number of fea- we know exists between efficacy beliefs and perfor-
tures that are consistent with a focus on self-efficacy mance. In these schools, teachers have opportunities
as it has been described here. One key element is to gain recognition for their developmental gains
that they all have effective systems that support the and expertise, and to share what they have learned
development of teacher efficacy. This support is with colleagues. For example, in most of these
demonstrated, first, through focused and clearly schools teachers can earn salary increases, advance-
communicated school improvement goals. School ment credits, or stipends for professional develop-
improvement goals that are well defined and under- ment success. Many also provide opportunities for
stood effectively focus professional development teachers to gain special recognition by conducting
activities while providing sources of motivation and workshops for colleagues both within and outside
commitment for teachers. When teachers, adminis- their school or by attending or presenting at state
trators, and support staff understand and share re- and national conferences.
sponsibility for goals and share accountability for In short, schools with high-performance profes-
results they are in an ideal position to provide re- sional development activities have integrated a
sources, ideas, and suggestions and support one number of key dimensions that support and rein-
another in the accomplishment of those goals. In force skill development and efficacy beliefs. These
short, such goals provide a sound foundation upon include well-defined school goals, individual profes-
which teaching-related efficacy can be built. sional development plans that are aligned with
Second, most award-winning schools require those goals, and the presence of effective feedback
teachers to develop individual professional develop- and reward systems that work to stabilize efficacy
ment plans. Such plans have a tremendous potential beliefs and build positive efficacy-performance cy-
to enhance efficacy beliefs because they require tea- cles.
chers to identify in specific terms what knowledge,
skills or abilities they need to improve, how they Summary and Conclusions
will do so, and how they will recognize when im- School districts and administrators now under
provement has been achieved. In short, individual pressure to select or design models of professional
professional development plans foster the develop- development that are drastically different from past
ment of self-efficacy because they provide the frame- approaches are seeking solid research data and prac-
work within which teachers can get clear informa- tical applications to meet the new demands. It is the
tion about the outcomes and pattern of progress contention of this paper that the growing demands
they are making as they strive to master new knowl- for accountability and results require innovative
edge and skill sets. This information is the substance approaches to teacher in-service that are theoreti-
from which strong efficacy beliefs are built. cally sound and supported by research. We have
Third, schools with award-winning professional tried to demonstrate why we believe that the self-
development programs have built integrated sys- efficacy construct represents a viable organizing
tems of feedback and support that provide teachers concept for the development of new and better pro-
with clear and compelling information about skill fessional development models. Self-efficacy is a
improvements. This includes frequent and regular central feature of social learning theory and its role
progress reviews with principals, peer evaluation as a potent intervening factor between learning and
teams that observe and provide written feedback subsequent performance has been established by
about performance improvements (often facilitated research in a number of contexts, including teacher
by electronic communication), and built-in time development. There is also substantial research indi-
within the teacher workday for collaboration, feed- cating that the self-efficacy construct can provide
back, and learning. schools and staff development specialists with the
Finally, award-winning schools have elements tools they need to design effective teacher training,
in place that help stabilize positive efficacy beliefs improve teacher competence, and by extension en-
and build the cyclical and amplifying relationship hance student outcomes.
Volume XXVI • Number 1 • Fall 2003 19
Nikki Bray-Clark & Reid Bates
We have suggested that the development of self- Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
efficacy should become a central consideration in the Ashton, P. T., & Webb, R. B. (1986). Making a differ-
design and development of in-service training plans ence: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achieve-
and methods as well as a measured outcome of in- ment. New York, NY: Longman.
service training and other teacher development ac- Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and
tivities. There is some evidence this may be occur- action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs,
ring. The value of self-efficacy as an important vari- NJ: Prentice-Hall.
able in teacher effectiveness is implicitly reflected in Bandura, A. (1991). Social cognitive theory. Organi-
The National Staff Development Standards (NSDS) zational Behavior and Human Decision Processes,
(1994; 1995a; 1995b). These standards do not specifi- 50, 248–287.
cally identify self-efficacy as a major focal point for Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy the exercise of control.
designing staff development efforts or an important Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
outcome metric of those efforts. But, as with the Bobbett, J. (2001) School culture, teacher efficacy, and
Model Professional Development Award schools, decision making in demonstrably effective and inef-
they do incorporate ideas, processes, and activities fective schools. Unpublished Doctoral disserta-
that address some of the specific sources of self-effi- tion, Louisiana State University.
cacy. For example, the NSDS specifically calls for Cannella, G. S., & Reif, J. C. (1994). Preparing teach-
follow-up of in-service instruction with a variety of ers for cultural diversity: Constructivist orienta-
strategies including modeling, peer coaching, colle- tions. Action in Teacher Education, 26(3), 37–45.
gial support groups, mentoring, study groups, as Coladarci, T. (1992) Teachers’ sense of efficacy and
well as audio-taping and video-taping. From a theo- commitment to teaching. Journal of Experimental
retical perspective, the nature of these activities is Education, 60(4), 323–37.
consistent with an orientation to teacher in-service Darling-Hammond, L (2000). Teacher quality and
that fosters positive efficacy beliefs. From a practical student achievement: A review of the state pol-
perspective, they can all be implemented in ways icy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives,
that offer an opportunity to specifically attend to 8(1), 2–8.
and enhance the efficacy beliefs of teachers. Eden, D., & Kinnar, J. (1991). Modeling Galatea:
We believe that self-efficacy, when used as a Boosting self-efficacy to increase volunteering.
pivot point in the design of in-service training and Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(6), 773–780.
professional development activities, can provide a Feistritzer, C. E. (1999). Professional development op-
sound theoretical framework for understanding the portunities for teachers. Washington, DC: Senate
why’s and how’s of teacher development. It also Committee on Health, Education, Labor and
points to the potential value of a set of practical tools Pensions.
—including feedback, various instructional design Fullan, M. J. (1991). The new meaning of educational
elements, and integrated support systems—that can change. New York: Teachers College Press.
be used to foster positive efficacy beliefs, improve Garet, M. S., Birman, B. F., Porter, A. C., Desimone,
teacher competence, and enhance student outcomes. L., Herman, R., & Yoon, K. S. (1999). Designing
effective professional development: Lessons from the
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Self-Efficacy Beliefs and Teacher Effectiveness
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