ERIC EJ841380: Adolescent Pregnancy in America: Causes and Responses

2007·0.12 MB·English

by  ERIC

4 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007
Adolescent Pregnancy in America: Causes and Responses
By Desirae M. Domenico, Ph.D. and Karen H. Jones, Ed.D.
Abstract Introduction mothers did not graduate from
high school. Less than one-third
Adolescent pregnancy has oc­ While slightly decreasing in
of adolescent females giving
curred throughout America’s his­ rates in recent years, adolescent
birth before age 18 ever complete
tory. Only in recent years has it pregnancy continues to be
high school, and the younger the
been deemed an urgent crisis, as prevalent in the United States,
pregnant adolescents are, the
more young adolescent mothers with nearly one million teenage
less likely they are to complete
give birth outside of marriage. At- females becoming pregnant each
high school (Brindis & Philliber,
risk circumstances associated year (Meade & Ickovics, 2005;
2003; Koshar, 2001). Nationally,
with adolescent pregnancy in­ National Campaign to Prevent
about 25% of adolescent moth­
clude medical and health compli­ Teen Pregnancy, 2003; Sarri &
ers have a second baby within
cations, less schooling and higher Phillips, 2004). The country’s
one year of their first baby, leav­
dropout rates, lower career aspi­ adolescent pregnancy rate re­
ing the prospect of high school
rations, and a life encircled by mains the highest among west­
graduation improbable. How­
poverty. While legislation for ca­ ern industrialized nations, with
ever, if a parenting female can
reer and technical education has 4 of every 10 pregnancies occur­
delay a second pregnancy, she
focused attention on special ring in women younger than age
becomes less at risk for dropping
needs populations, the definition 20 (Dangal, 2006; Farber, 2003;
out of school and her chance of
has been broadened to include SmithBattle, 2003; Spear, 2004).
finishing high school increases
single parents. This article en­ Despite a 21% decline in the rate
(Kreinin, 1998).
compasses a brief history of ado­ of pregnancy among older ado­
Research reveals many ado­
lescent pregnancy in America, lescents between ages 15 and
lescent females become preg­
factors influencing adolescent 19, nearly 12,000 adolescent fe­
nant intentionally because they
pregnancy, and the conse­ males under age 15 become
see no other life goals within
quences associated with adoles­ pregnant each year (National
their reach (Winter, 1997).
cent pregnancy. The conclusion Campaign to Prevent Teen Preg­
Plagued by poor school perfor­
includes implications for educa­ nancy, 2003; Rothenberg &
mance and low self-esteem, they
tors, researchers, and practitioners. Weissman, 2002; Sexuality In­
have no realistic expectations
formation & Education Council of
about education or occupations;
the United States [SIECUS], 2002).
thus, pregnancy is viewed as an
Adolescent pregnancy and
alternative path to economic in­
childbearing are national prob­
dependence and adult status
lems that affect the community
(Brown & Barbosa, 2001;
and society at large (Spear,
Farber, 2003; Rothenberg &
2004). Adolescent mothers be­
Weissman, 2002; Turner, 2004).
come economically dependent
Usually adolescents who become
due to their decreased educa­
teen mothers are already expe­
tional attainment, the decision
riencing academic difficulties in
to keep and raise their children,
school, have low educational
subsequent high fertility rates,
expectations, and are not confi­
and greater occurrences of
dent they will graduate from
single-parent families (Brindis &
high school, or are attempting
Philliber, 2003; Farber, 2003).
to escape abusive home situa­
Not only is adolescent pregnancy
tions (Coles, 2005; Koshar,
economically costly, it poses
2001). Pursuing higher educa­
various social consequences for
tion or a career is not reason­
teen mothers. Pregnancy is one
ably within their reach, and they
of the reasons commonly cited
may experience feelings of hope­
by female secondary students
lessness or helplessness regard­
for dropping out of high school
ing their future (Rothenberg &
(Brindis & Philliber, 2003).
Weissman, 2002). Coupled with
Rothenberg and Weissman
a lack of positive role models and
(2002) found that 7 out of 10 fe­
impoverished living situations,
males who became adolescent
The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 5
adolescent females decide to be­ witnessed a decline in premari­ secondary students have re­
come pregnant or they “drift” tal pregnancies, which was par­ ported being sexually active be­
into pregnancy, as this decision tially attributed to greater fore marriage (Center for Disease
appears to be their best option church participation and more Control and Prevention [CDC],
(Brindis & Philliber, 2003; emphasis on self-control and 2004; Santelli et al., 2004; Zero
Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002; self-discipline (Farber, 2003). Population Growth, 1997). De­
Winter, 1997). It is equally im­ Even into the mid-twentieth spite high rates of adolescent
portant to recognize that adoles­ century, one-fourth of all Ameri­ pregnancy, the majority of
cent pregnancy can be a posi­ can women were mothers before American adults still believe
tive life choice for females from age 20. However, almost all ado­ teens should not be sexually
certain ethnic or social groups lescent mothers were married active, non-marital childbearing
(Tripp & Viner, 2005). before the arrival of their babies, is unacceptable, and unwed
or they succumbed to the pres­ adolescent mothers are viewed
Adolescent Pregnancy
sure to drop out of school to con­ in a negative manner (Hofferth
in Early America ceal the pregnancy (Hofferth, et al., 2001; National Campaign
Reid, & Mott, 2001; Hymowitz, to Prevent Teen Pregnancy,
While many Americans have
1997; Luker, 1996). 2003; Zero Population Growth,
become increasingly concerned
If adolescent pregnancy and 1997). This position is substan­
with the problem of teenage
childbearing have been so com­ tiated by a recent study of ado­
pregnancy over the past three
mon throughout American his­ lescent females who reported
decades, the truth is that teen­
tory, why have these issues re­ having negative views toward
age pregnancy has been a soci­
ceived such mounting attention teen motherhood (Turner, 2004).
etal concern for more than three
and concern in recent years?
centuries (Luker, 1996). In pre­ Factors Influencing
Adolescent pregnancy and early
vious centuries, adolescent
marriage among teenagers were Adolescent Pregnancy
pregnancy and the problems
more accepted in the 1950s be­
surrounding it were not specific For years researchers have ex­
cause the young girl usually
to any age group, but instead amined risk factors related to
married the baby’s father to le­
were treated as part of broader adolescent pregnancy. Charac­
gitimize the birth (SmithBattle,
social issues. Only since the teristics such as family struc­
2003; Zero Population Growth,
1970s has the issue of unwed ture, age at first intercourse,
1997). As long as the end result
motherhood become associated goals, and child sexual abuse
of a premarital adolescent preg­
with teenagers (Luker, 1996). have been associated with ado­
nancy was marriage, the issue
Subsequently, teenage preg­ lescent pregnancy (Farber,
remained virtually invisible to soci­
nancy has gripped the attention 2003; McCullough & Scherman,
ety (Farber, 2003; Furstenberg Jr.,
of educators, policymakers, and 1991; Stewart, 2003; Xie,
1991; Hymowitz, 1997). In fact, it
the public, hence, being deemed Cairns, & Cairns, 2001).
was not until the radical social
an urgent crisis not only for the
Family Structure
changes of the 1960s that ado­
young mother and her child, but
lescent pregnancy became a Family structure is considered
for society as well (Farber, 2003;
more prominent and socially dis­ a major factor contributing to
Furstenberg Jr., 1991; Manlove,
turbing trend (Cherry, Dillon, & adolescent pregnancy and moth­
1998; Spear, 2004).
Rugh, 2001). In the 1960s, ado­ erhood. Rosen (1997) found a
In the Puritan communities
lescents began having sexual growing number of American
of early North America, it was
intercourse at an earlier age and adolescent females lived in rela­
not unusual for an adolescent
rejected hasty marriages to le­ tively unstable family situations
female to be a wife and mother
gitimize a birth, opting instead and many became sexually inti­
because she was considered to
to remain in school (Furstenberg mate for a short-term sense of
be mature. Throughout the co­
Jr., 1991). The country saw a comfort. Parental rejection, or a
lonial period, the incidence of
50% increase in the birth rate lack of warmth, affection, or
young motherhood and of out-
among unwed teenagers from love, also led adolescents to seek
of-wedlock births posed an eco­
1960 to 1975, and the number relationships outside the family
nomic burden on communities.
of births to unmarried teenagers to boost their self-esteem
In both the Puritan and colonial
between ages 15 to 19 quadrupled (McCullough & Scherman, 1991).
times, young mothers were pun­
from 1960 to 1992 (Furstenberg Jr.; However, strong family relation­
ished, hastily married off, and
Hogan, Sun, & Cornwell, 2000). ships and two parent families
considered immoral by the
Today, while premarital sex have been found to lower the
church (Farber, 2003; Luker,
is not condoned, nearly 47% of incidence of adolescent preg­
1996). The nineteenth century
6 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007
nancy (Weisfeld & Woodward, culties in school, or they at­ over 65% of adolescent mothers
2004). Hymowitz (1997) claimed tempted to escape abusive home had babies by men who were age
parental influence was the most situations (Koshar, 2001). Many 20 or older, implying that a
significant variable in adolescent adolescent mothers viewed higher number of adolescent preg­
pregnancy prevention. She con­ postsecondary education as un­ nancies may result from sexual
cluded the absence of a father attainable, and they possessed abuse than previously thought
was the primary factor in teen little awareness of their life op­ (Klein, 1997; Villarosa, 1997).
girls becoming pregnant. It was tions and career opportunities.
Consequences of
also reported that adolescents Seeing no future for themselves
whose parents communicated and coupled with a lack of posi­ Adolescent Pregnancy
strong disapproval of sexual tive role models to follow, ado­
Adolescent pregnancy and child­
activity exhibited fewer risk-tak­ lescent females chose to become
birth impose difficult long-term
ing behaviors and were likely to pregnant, as this decision ap­
outcomes and have adverse ef­
delay sex until a later age peared to be their best alterna­
fects not only on the young
(Manlove et al., 2002). tive (Brown & Barbosa, 2001;
mother, but also on her child
Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002).
Age at First Intercourse (Hao & Cherlin, 2004; Meade &
Teen mothers viewed childbearing
Today puberty occurs much ear­ Ickovics, 2005). These negative
as the one thing they could do that
lier in adolescents, and first- consequences and outcomes
was socially responsible, gave
time sexual encounters are tak­ have been documented over the
meaning to their lives, and offered
ing place at younger ages, re­ years, and society tends to ste­
hope for their futures (Rosen, 1997).
sulting in more sexually experi­ reotype all adolescent mothers
enced adolescents (Xie et al., Sexual Abuse in an unfavorable manner
2001). Between 1988 and 1995, Sexual abuse may alter percep­ (Camarena, Minor, Melmer, &
the proportion of adolescent fe­ tions about sexual behavior, Ferrie, 1998). Possessing an
males who first had sex at 14 leading an abused adolescent, understanding of the factors asso­
years old or younger practically especially females, to initiate sex ciated with adolescent pregnancy
doubled (National Campaign to at an earlier age and have more and its consequences is necessary
Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2003). partners (Saewyc, Magee, & to effectively prevent and ease the
There is not a direct relationship Pettingell, 2004). McCullough & costs of adolescent pregnancy.
between the time a girl reaches Scherman (1991) speculated Career Opportunities
puberty and the likeliness of her some teen pregnancies possibly
Often pregnant adolescents are
becoming pregnant; however, resulted from unresolved feel­
unaware of the various types of
earlier onset of puberty com­ ings and behaviors associated
jobs available in the workforce.
bined with more peer pressure with earlier sexual abuse. Al­
Pregnant secondary students
and less parental supervision though the majority of adoles­
have been found to possess
results in today’s adolescents cent females claimed their first
lower career aspirations, attain
being faced with making prema­ sexual experience was volun­
less prestigious occupations,
ture sexual decisions (Farber, tary, Farber (2003) found about
and experience less satisfaction
2003; Rodriguez Jr., & Moore, 40% of girls who first had inter­
with career progress, feel their
1995). Adolescents whose moth­ course at age 13 or 14 indicated
future job choices are limited
ers gave birth as teenagers or involuntary or unwanted inter­
when compared to their non­
who have pregnant siblings are course with an older partner.
pregnant peers. They were less
also more likely to engage in Herman-Giddens et al. (1998)
likely to get a job or attend col­
early sexual intercourse and be­ reported that females who were
lege (Hockaday, Crase, Shelley,
come teen parents as well (Manlove sexually abused as children
& Stockdale, 2000; Nord, Moore,
et al., 2002; Xie et al., 2001). were three times more likely to
Morrison, Brown, Myers, 1992;
become pregnant during their
Future Expectations School Board News, 1999). As a
teen years and usually became
Often the phenomenon of inten­ result, adolescent mothers often
pregnant at a younger age. Like­
tional pregnancy is limited to at- experienced a lack of meaning­
wise, about two-thirds of adoles­
risk, low-income adolescents ful and equal career opportuni­
cent mothers were previously
because they are more likely to ties, leading to a high rate of teen
sexually abused or raped by a
perceive their futures as bleak unemployment (Merrick, 1995).
father, stepfather, or other rela­
and motherhood as a better op­ Childbearing at an early age has
tive, and often suffered from low
tion (Davies et al., 2004). Usually also been found to reduce a
self-esteem and depression
adolescents who became moth­ female’s career opportunities to
(Sarri & Phillips, 2004; Villarosa,
ers experienced academic diffi­ mostly non-professional occupa­
1997). Additional studies found
The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 7
tions (Bissell, 2000). Additional mothers face poor life scenarios cial outcomes of adolescent
studies reinforced the notion and bleak impending prospects pregnancy, various economic
that adolescent motherhood was for educational and economic outcomes are also evident. Ado­
associated with unrealistic ca­ well-being (Maynard, 1996; lescent pregnancy and early
reer aspirations, unequal career Tonelli, 2004). Sarri and Phillips childbearing is detrimental, for
opportunities, and high unem­ (2004) implied young mothers very often the young female is
ployment rates among adolescent were at risk for confronting unable to attain sufficient edu­
females (Drummond & Hansford, many years of social and eco­ cation needed to compete in the
1992; Merrick, 1995; Nord et al., nomic disadvantages. Adoles­ economy (Sawhill, 2000). It is
1992). Pregnant adolescents rep­ cent mothers have often experi­ estimated that adolescent child­
resent the portion of at-risk enced medical complications bearing costs the nation roughly
youth that commonly fall into and health problems during seven billion dollars annually
occupations for which there is pregnancy, as many do not seek (National Campaign to Prevent
an oversupply of workers prenatal care (Sarri & Phillips, Teen Pregnancy, 2003;
(Drummond & Hansford, 1992). 2004). Children of teen mothers Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002).
Chartrand and Rose (1996) are more likely to achieve lower Adolescent mothers have relied
stressed the need for more ca­ levels of education, suffer from heavily on public assistance and
reer development theories that lifelong leaning disabilities, and constituted nearly one-half of all
focused on at-risk persons, as are at risk for becoming young, welfare recipients (Maynard,
these at-risk individuals are at unmarried parents themselves 1995; Zero Population Growth,
the junction of race, gender, and (Farber, 2003; Merrick, 1995; 1997). Such high levels of de­
class, often resulting in limited Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002). pendence on public assistance
access to education and career Generally, adolescent females indicated widespread poverty in
opportunities. had more children than women families of young adolescent
As mentioned earlier, the who delayed childbearing until mothers in America (National
best protection an adolescent their twenties, and this trend Center for Research in Voca­
female can have against becom­ continues today (Maynard, tional Education, 1992). Many
ing pregnant is to have life goals 1996; National Campaign to Pre­ Americans falsely assumed wel­
(Winter, 1997). Having positive vent Teen Pregnancy, 2002; Zero fare encouraged people, espe­
attitudes about education and Population Growth, 1997). cially adolescent females, to
clear educational goals was as­ Because adolescent mothers have babies. Given the United
sociated with fewer incidences of often lack work experience, edu­ States provided less support for
adolescent births (Hockaday et cational skills, and job training, single mothers, and the welfare
al., 2000; Manlove, 1998; their future employment levels benefits have steadily decreased
Manlove et al., 2002). Stewart and earnings are minimal. since 1973, Luker (1996) stated
(2003) theorized that adolescent Sawhill (2000) observed that there was likely no correlation
females with high career aspi­ adolescent mothers who did between the level of welfare ben­
rations may postpone early work were less competitive in the efits and the incidence of out-
motherhood to focus on their workforce, and many struggled of-wedlock births.
educational and career goals. to survive with low-wage or
Educational Outcomes
O’Connor (1999) found that aca­ dead-end jobs. Many men re­
Timing of family formation is
demically-oriented females, sponsible for children born to
critical in the amount of educa­
meaning those with good grades, adolescent mothers provide little
tion a young girl obtains
high test scores, and high edu­ or no child support; thus a large
(Hofferth et al., 2001). Becom­
cational aspirations, were less number of adolescent mothers
ing an adolescent mother has
likely to give birth while still in have remained disproportion­
been associated with less formal
high school. Other studies ately poor, depending on public
education, often leading to pov­
(Rodriguez Jr. & Moore, 1995; assistance to support them eco­
erty (Meade & Ickovics, 2005;
Young, Turner, Denny, & Young, nomically (National Campaign to
Merrick, 1995). Adolescent preg­
2004) reported adolescents with Prevent Teen Pregnancy, 2002;
nancy can pose major chal­
a high self-esteem and a belief they Nord et al., 1992; Rothenberg &
lenges to school attendance and
had future goals were less likely to Weissman, 2002; Sawhill, 2000).
completion, and it is one of the
experience an early pregnancy. These grim statistics are the re­
reasons commonly cited by fe­
alities adolescent mothers must
Adolescent Mothers’ Futures male secondary students for
face concerning their futures.
Many researchers have painted dropping out of high school
a dismal picture of the future for Economic Consequences (Drummond & Hansford, 1992;
adolescent mothers. Young In addition to the numerous so­ Hao & Cherlin, 2004). Balanc­
8 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007
ing school, a job, and childcare Poverty tion use (Tonelli, 2004; Zero
is often overwhelming for female Poverty is an additional conse­ Population Growth, 1997). The
adolescent parents and consumes quence of adolescent pregnancy, Institute for Educational Lead­
time and energy that they could often leading to poorer outcomes ership (1997) suggested that
otherwise spend on school (Hofferth for adolescent mothers (Tripp & schools extend educational op­
et al., 2001; Koshar, 2001). Viner, 2005). As many as 80% portunities in alternative
Less than one-third of fe­ of unwed adolescent mothers schools, offer supportive learn­
male adolescents who gave birth grew up in extreme poverty and ing environments for pregnant
before age 18 completed high the likelihood their children will and parenting adolescents.
school. Additionally, for adoles­ grow up in poverty is high. Many School districts that have alter­
cent mothers experiencing a poverty-stricken adolescents native programs meet the needs
subsequent pregnancy within accepted their pregnancy and of parenting adolescents by
two years of their first delivery, viewed it as a means of improv­ scheduling later class times, of­
the prospect of high school ing their lives (Rosen, 1997). fering pregnancy and childbirth
graduation is improbable Adolescents subjected to disad­ classes, allowing students to
(Kreinin, 1998; Meade & vantaged circumstances, such gain graduation credits, providing
Ickovics, 2005). Hofferth et al. as living in poor, racially segre­ access to services such as counsel­
(2001) found that adolescent gated, high crime communities, ing and on-site nursing aides, and
childbearing was greatly associ­ or living in problematic or single arranging quality childcare services
ated with reduced chances of parent families, were more at (Essortment, 2007).
completing high school and at­ risk of becoming pregnant dur­ While adolescent pregnancy
tending college, thus leading the ing their teenage years prevention programs offer
researchers to conclude that today’s (Maynard, 1995; Sarri & countless support services to
adolescent mothers who are unable Phillips, 2004). Manlove et al. pregnant and parenting adoles­
to obtain some form of higher edu­ (2002) reported adolescents liv­ cents, not all support services
cation are at a disadvantage. ing in poverty stricken neighbor­ are consistently available
Koshar (2001) discovered hoods were more apt to engage throughout the country and pro­
that many adolescent females in sexual intercourse, often lead­ grams vary from state to state
who became pregnant were al­ ing to adolescent pregnancy and (Brindis & Philliber, 2003). Pro­
ready experiencing academic dif­ childbirth. Maynard (1995) grams aimed at preventing preg­
ficulties in school and therefore speculated that adolescent preg­ nancy and parenting among
were at risk for dropping out. nancy and childbearing directly adolescents must be long-term
While many adolescent females resulted in the intergenerational and comprehensive, while incor­
on the verge of dropping out transfer of poverty. porating important components
claimed becoming pregnant gave such as early intervention, sexu­
them the excuse to quit school, Responses to ality education, counseling,
other adolescent females first Adolescent Pregnancy health services, adolescent do­
dropped out of school and then mestic violence, and youth de­
Over the last half of the twenti­
became pregnant (Kreinin, velopment (Raphael, 2005;
eth century, schools, communi­
1998; School Board News, Rothenberg & Weissman, 2002;
ties, and government agencies
1999). Academic success and a School Board News, 1999). Na­
have worked diligently to help
bonding to school have been tional programs such as the
combat adolescent pregnancy.
associated with reduced adolescent Abstinence Education Program,
There are literally hundreds of
pregnancy rates (Yampolskaya, funded by the welfare reform law
adolescent pregnancy preven­
Brown, & Vargo, 2004). Adoles­ and administered by Health and
tion programs available to teens
cents who had friends with high Human Services, offers federal
today, yet it is difficult for edu­
educational aspirations were grants to states for abstinence
cators and practitioners to know
less likely to engage in sex at an education activities including
which of these programs serve
early age, thus reducing their mentoring and counseling. The
as “best practices” (Franklin &
chances of adolescent pregnancy Adolescent Family Life Program,
Corcoran, 2000). Successful
and increasing their likelihood of also administered by Health and
programs are characterized as
completing high school when com­ Human Services, affords educa­
being multifaceted, incorporat­
pared to adolescents whose tion and social services to teen
ing not only abstinence, but also
peers did not have these char­ fathers to help them realize their
other topics including delayed
acteristics (Manlove et al., 2002). roles and responsibilities as a
sexual activity, life skills train­
parent. In addition, many teen
ing, self-esteem, sex education,
mothers receive medical assis­
parenting skills, and contracep­
The Journal for Vocational Special Needs Education 9
tance, and family planning and fessionals to assist families of (Sarkees-Wircenski & Scott,
reproductive health services these adolescents in teaching 2003). The recent passage of the
through Medicaid, provided them to become independent, Carl D. Perkins Career and
through Title XIX of the Social self-sufficient adults. Out­ Technical Improvement Act of
Security Act (Association of Ma­ reach programs should stress 2006 continues the support of
ternal & Child Health Programs, the importance of career as­ single parents, including adoles­
2006). Adolescent pregnancy is pirations for all pregnant and cent mothers, while preparing
a complex problem, and there is parenting adolescents, espe­ them for occupations that lead
a need for collaboration among cially those with special needs. to self-efficacy (Association for
various organizations to achieve Career and Technical Education,
Implications for Career
successful pregnancy preven­ 2006). The federal welfare pro­
tion programs, as only marginal and Technical Education gram, Temporary Assistance for
success in the fight against ado­ Needy Families (TANF), requires
Federal and state governments
lescent pregnancy has been adolescent parents who are mi­
can contribute in the effort to
achieved to date (Brindis & nors to participate in school or
reduce adolescent pregnancy by
Philliber, 2003; School Board training to receive aid (Center for
providing stable funding for
News, 1999; Tonelli, 2004; Law and Social Policy, 2001).
comprehensive educational and
Weisfeld & Woodward, 2004). Once pregnant and
support services to pregnant
parenting adolescents gain a
Recommendations for and parenting adolescents (In­
higher self-efficacy with realis­
stitute for Educational Leader­
Practice tic outcome expectations, they
ship, 1997). Students with spe­
can begin to establish and work
1. To increase adolescent fe­ cial needs are at further risk for
toward the attainment of career
males’ self-efficacy, schools adolescent pregnancy; however,
goals. According to Young, Mar­
should incorporate curricu­ information regarding the num­
tin, Young, and Ting (2001), pro­
lum that nurtures a sense of ber of adolescent mothers with
grams that connect behaviors
self-worth and productivity special needs and their educa­
with outcomes and programs
that can lend itself to the tional needs has not been pre­
that promote the importance of
workforce. Beginning in ninth viously recorded (Jones,
higher education afford adoles­
grade, delivery of such cur­ Domenico, & Valente, 2006;
cent females the skills to develop
riculum can be provided Jones, Woolcock-Henry, &
realistic strategies for meeting
through Career and Techni­ Domenico, 2005; Shapland,
life goals. Guidance programs
cal Education classroom ex­ 1999; Yampolskaya, Brown, &
that include career education
ercises, guidance career ac­ Greenbaum, 2002). Inclusive
and exploration opportunities
tivities, and community vocational training for all stu­
have been found to provide ex­
school-to-work programs. dents, including special needs
posure to postsecondary educa­
2. Students from impoverished students, is mandated and sup­
tion and training options
backgrounds should be af­ ported by a variety of national
(McWhirter, Rasheed, &
forded opportunities to partici­ policy initiatives addressing
Crothers, 2000). An implication
pate in long-term secondary pro­ transition services for students
of this paper is the need for vo­
grams that will enable them to with special needs. These in­
cational special needs educators
establish career and educational clude: The Technology-Related
and career and technical edu­
goals and provide them the tools Act for Individuals with Disabili­
cators to understand the neces­
to achieve these goals. ties, Goals 2000- Educate
sity for building adolescent self-
3. Sex education curriculum America Act; School-To-Work
efficacy and intense education
prior to high school entry Opportunities Act, and the
in linking pregnant or parenting
should clearly define the de­ Americans with Disabilities Act.
adolescent females’ outcome ex­
cision-making process for a Specifically, legislation for career
pectations with their goals re­
sexual relationship, the out­ and technical education has fo­
garding future career aspira­
comes of a sexual relationship, cused attention on special needs
tions. Another implication would
and the choice to abstain from populations as early as the Vo­
be to recognize the importance
sex without a sense of guilt. cational Education Act of 1963.
of assisting pregnant and
4. Because families are often a The Carl D. Perkins Vocational
parenting females from special
support group for pregnant and Technical Education Act of
needs populations in determin­
and parenting adolescents, 1998 broadened the definition of
ing barriers to the workforce in
there is a need for community disadvantaged populations to
an effort to enable them to reas­
outreach programs headed by include single parents, which
sess their career options.
social workers and health pro­ includes adolescent mothers
10 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007
Typically, Americans have vember 20, 2004 from http:// ally abused as children. Journal of
been reluctant to deal with is­ apps.nccd.cdc.gov/yrbss/ Interpersonal Violence, 13, 504-513.
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reproductive health (Zero Popu­ 4&desc=Sexual%20Behavior M. C., II, & Stockdale, D. F.
Center for Law and Social Policy. (2000). A prospective study of
lation Growth, 1997). However,
(2001, November). TANF and teen adolescent pregnancy. Journal of
society must assume the re­
parents with disabilities. Wash­ Adolescence, 23, 423-438.
sponsibility of educating teens
ington, DC. Author. Hofferth, S. L., Reid, L., & Mott, F.
about sex, adolescent preg­
Chartrand, J. M., & Rose, M. L. L. (2001). The effects of early
nancy, and the negative effects (1996). Career interventions for at- childbearing on schooling over
of early motherhood on young risk populations: Incorporating so­ time. Family Planning Perspec­
females. The challenge of reduc­ cial cognitive influences. Career De­ tives, 33, 259-267.
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youth are able to fully under­ D. (2001). United States. In A. L. behaviors of American females
Cherry, M. E. Dillon, & D. Rugh aged 15-19 years: 1985, 1990,
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12 Volume 30, Number 1, Fall 2007
Yampolskaya, S., Brown, E. C., & poverty and teen pregnancy. Ado- Correspondence about this
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turbance: Risk factors and out- ternal and internal poverty as
Pebblebrook High School, 991
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Old Alabama Road, Mableton,
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GA 30126. Electronic mail may be
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sent to dmdomenico@ hotmail.com
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