ERIC EJ840206: Career Indecision Levels of Students Enrolled in a College of Agriculture and Life Sciences

2007·0.16 MB·English

by  ERIC

CAREER INDECISION LEVELS OF STUDENTS ENROLLED IN
A COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE AND LIFE SCIENCES

Levon T. Esters, Assistant Professor
Iowa State University

Abstract

The purpose of this study was to determine the level of career indecision of students enrolled in
the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences at Iowa State University. A primary goal of this
research was to explore the construct of career indecision using the three factor structure
identified by Kelly and Lee (2002). The factors of interest in this study included: Identity
Diffusion, Positive Choice Conflict, and Tentative Decision. A MANOVA indicated significant
main effects for grade level for Tentative Decision. A significant interaction was also observed
between gender and grade level for Positive Choice Conflict. Overall, students in this study
indicated moderate levels of career indecision across the three factors. Given the levels of career
indecision observed in this study, a need may exist to emphasize the integration of various career
development activities across courses offered in the college. Implications for future research are
discussed.

Introduction friends with whom they socialize, the
avocational activities in which they engage,
There is no question that the nature of and hence their quality of life (Gati &
work and the task of finding the right job are Asher, 2001). Therefore, it is no wonder
becoming more complex (Scofield, 1994). that many individuals may experience
Ever-evolving technology, changes in the considerable anxiety when making career-
job market, and the transition to a global related decisions.
economy are some of the primary reasons of It is widely known that a large
the increasing complexity of making career proportion of students in higher education
decisions (Smith & Gast, 1998). Also, with institutions are enrolled to improve their
the growing rate of change in the world of career prospects (Herr, Cramer, & Niles,
work comes an increase in the number of 2004). At the same time, many colleges and
career transitions individuals make during universities have also become more focused
their lifetime (Gati, Krausz, & Osipow, on helping facilitate students’ career
1996). Clearly, the quality of the career development. For example, the assistance to
decisions made during these transitions is students making career plans in higher
significant for both the individual and education has moved from an informal
society. process between a professor and his or her
In addition to the issues related to advisees to a more comprehensive and
making a career transition in a constantly professional process (Herr et al.). Another
changing workforce, the number and variety commonly used career intervention are
of career opportunities available to most career courses which have been found to
individuals are now much larger and broader result in more positive career planning
than those existing 100 years ago (Sharf, thoughts and increased career decidedness,
2002). However, this expanded choice of vocational identity, internal locus-of-control,
options is a challenge, even a burden for and career maturity (Folsom, Reardon, &
most people. Frequently, the occupation Lee, 2001). Reasons for the increased need
individuals choose has significant long- of career development services appear to be
range implications on their lifestyle, the multifaceted (Reese & Miller, 2006). On
Journal of Agricultural Education 130 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Esters Career Indecision Levels…
the surface, students appear to be entering problems people have in reaching
school undecided on a major (ACT, 2002), appropriate closure in implementing career
and at least half of all students who decide decisions.
on a major change their mind at some point Although the CDS has been used for
in their academic career (Tinto, 1993). Yet, years, the factor structure of the CDS has
despite this renewed interest being placed on been the subject of debate. In particular,
career development, for some students, some researchers have questioned whether
making a career decision is quite a or not the CDS should be considered a
cumbersome task (Lancaster, Rudolph, multidimensional or a unidimensional
Perkins, & Patten, 1999). In fact, not only measure of career indecision. For example,
do many individuals lack the essential Shimizu, Vondracek, and Schulenberg
elements necessary to make the right career (1994) and Shimizu, Vondracek,
decision, higher education is replete with Schulenberg, and Hostetler (1988)
students who have career problems (Herr et conducted factor analyses and confirmed a
al.). four-factor solution of the CDS which
included: Indecision, Decidedness,
Conceptual Framework Approach-Approach Conflict, and Barriers.
Yet, Martin and colleagues (Laplante,
The term “career decision-making” has Coallier, Sabourin, & Martin, 1994; Martin,
become prevalent in recent years (Gati & Sabourin, Laplante & Coallier, 1991)
Asher, 2001). Career decision-making is the contend that the CDS is unidimensional and
process by which individuals make career that the use of four subscales is not
and educational decisions (Swanson & appropriate.
D’Achiardi, 2005). Career decision-making Adding to this debate more recently
examines how people make decisions were Kelly and Lee (2002), who
(decision-making style) as well as an investigated the factor structure of several
individual's beliefs that he/she can assessment instruments that measured the
successfully accomplish behaviors that will construct of career indecision including the
lead to desired outcomes (decision-making CDS, Career Factors Inventory, and Career
self-efficacy). However, a third area, career Decision Making Difficulties Questionnaire.
indecision, has been a major focus of Their purpose was to clarify the different
vocational research over the last few domains of career indecision as well as to
decades (Guay, Senecal, Gauthier, & Fernet, identify the internal structure of career
2003; Osipow, 1999). Career indecision has indecision. Seven unique factors emerged
been used to refer to the problems from their analysis. However, in particular,
individuals may have in making their career the researchers discovered that the CDS was
decision (Slaney, 1988) as well as the comprised of three factors: Identity
precursors that may influence or impede Diffusion, which is the inability to
career choice (Swanson & D’Achiardi). adequately crystallize one’s career relevant
There have been several measures of characteristics or to see how one’s personal
career decision-making developed to help characteristics can be implemented in
psychologists and researchers better careers; Positive Choice Conflict, which
understand career indecision (Hackett & represents the indecision of choosing one
Watkins, 1995). However, the Career career from a number of attractive
Decision Scale (CDS) (Osipow, 1987) is not alternatives; and Tentative Decision, which
only the oldest of the decision scales, but it indicates that a career decision has been
is also the most widely used and has made and that there are questions about how
stimulated a large body of research (Osipow, to implement the decision.
1991). The CDS is designed to identify Historically, research on career
barriers that prevent individuals from indecision has focused on the differences
making career decisions (Osipow & between decided and undecided students in
Fitzgerald, 1996). It is based on the order to understand factors that might
rationale that a finite number of relatively explain a student’s inability to choose a
discrete circumstances are responsible for major or occupation (Callanan & Greenhaus,
Journal of Agricultural Education 131 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Esters Career Indecision Levels…
1992). However, several studies indicate Methods/Procedures
that this dichotomous grouping of “decided-
undecided” is too simplistic and leaves out The target population for this study
other areas of concern (Brooks, 1984; Fuqua consisted of all freshmen and seniors (N =
& Hartman, 1983). 1,284) enrolled in the College of Agriculture
To date, only one study has investigated and Life Sciences at Iowa State University.
the construct of career indecision in A purposive sample of freshmen students
agricultural education. Kotrlik (1990) sought enrolled in freshmen orientation courses and
to determine the career indecision level of seniors enrolled in senior capstone/seminar
senior agriscience students and to courses from eight of 15 academic
investigate factors related to career departments of the college were used in the
indecision. In his study, Kotrlik used the study. Students were selected from these
CDS as a unidimensional measure. Results two grade levels because of the researcher’s
of this study indicated that the CDS scores interest in understanding developmental
were ‘fairly high’ when compared d i f f e r e n ces among undergraduate students.
with data from other high school H e n c e , selected departments were targeted
seniors in the CDS manual. Kotrlik also from those that offered either a freshmen
found that the CDS score had low to orientation and/or senior capstone courses.
moderate correlations with 11 F u r t h e r, because the college of agriculture in
variables (e.g., age, high school grade point the study had recently expanded to include
average, race, gender, father’s education disciplines non-traditional to the field of
level, and FFA membership). In a g r i c ulture (e.g., biochemistry, biophysics,
addition, six of 11 variables were found to and molecular biology, genetics,
explain 24% of the variance in the CDS development and cell biology), the
score. researcher chose to survey students in
Due to the lack of research on career departments that are common to most
indecision in agricultural education, a colleges of agriculture (e.g., animal science,
primary goal of this study was to move horticulture, etc.). The final sample (n =
beyond a general description of career 310) consisted of freshmen (n = 130) and
indecision. Specifically, this study senior (n = 180) students from the following
represents an exploratory approach to departments: agricultural education,
identify the level of career indecision of agricultural biosystems engineering,
students enrolled in the College of agricultural economics, agronomy, animal
Agriculture and Life Sciences at Iowa State science, entomology, horticulture, and
University using the most recent factor natural resources, ecology, & management.
solution of the CDS developed by Kelly and Because of sampling methods used in this
Lee (2002). study, results are not generalizable to any
larger population.
Purpose/Objectives The instrument used to collect data for
the study consisted of the CDS (Osipow,
The purpose of this descriptive 1987) and items requesting demographic
exploratory study was to determine i n f o r m a tion such as grade point average,
the level of career indecision of r a c e , home residence, and academic
students enrolled in the College of department currently enrolled. The CDS is a
Agriculture and Life Sciences at Iowa State widely used instrument to assess career
University. The following objectives guided indecision. The instrument contains 19
this study: items, two that measure career certainty and
16 measuring career indecision and one free
1. Describe the demographic response item which allows respondents to
characteristics of students. list other barriers not reported in the scale
2. Describe the level of career items. Responses are recorded on a 4-point
indecision of students. Likert-type scale ranging from 1 = “not at
3. Describe the differences in the level all like me” to 4 = “exactly like me.” Scores
of career indecision of students. on the Certainty Scale can range from 2 to 8
Journal of Agricultural Education 132 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Esters Career Indecision Levels…
with higher scores indicating greater Tentative Decision factors. Similarly, Kelly
certainty. Scores on the Indecision Scale and Lee reported internal consistency
can range from 16 to 64 with higher scores reliabilities of .57 for Positive Choice
indicating greater indecision. Osipow, Conflict and .63 for Tentative Decision.
Carney, Winer, Yanico, and Koschier (1976) Kelly and Lee noted that the internal
reported test-retest reliabilities of .90 and .82 consistency for Positive Choice Conflict was
for the Indecision Scale using two separate probably due to the fact that this factor only
samples of college students. The Career consisted of two items. However, due to the
Decision Scale has also been employed in a exploratory nature of this study along with
large number of studies which have the recently developed factor solution,
examined its validity and have found it to be reliabilities of .50 or .60 may be acceptable
a valid instrument (Osipow, 1987). There is (Nunnally, 1978).
also a substantial body of evidence Data were coded and analyzed using the
supporting its reliability and validity Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
(Slaney, 1988; Hackett & Watkins, 1995). version 16.0. Descriptive statistics including
It is widely accepted that career frequencies, percentages, means, and
indecision is a complex, multidimensional standard deviations were used to address
construct (Hartman, Fuqua, & Jenkins, objectives one and two. In order to address
1986). For this reason, this study was objective three, a factorial multivariate
focused on interpreting the results using the analysis of variance (MANOVA) was used
three factor solution identified by Kelly and to describe differences in the level of career
Lee (2002). The first factor, Identity indecision by gender and grade level. The
Diffusion, is composed of six of the original use of inferential statistics was based on the
CDS items and is defined as the inability to assumption that students included in this
adequately crystallize one’s career relevant study were a time and place sample,
characteristics or to see how one’s personal representative of past, present, and future
characteristics can be implemented in undergraduate students of similar
careers. The second factor, Positive Choice characteristics entering a college of
Conflict, is composed of two items and agriculture (Oliver & Hinkle, 1981). Effect
represents the indecision of choosing one sizes (partial eta squared) were interpreted
career from a number of attractive using Cohen’s (1988) criteria.
alternatives. The third factor, Tentative
Decision, is composed of three items and Results/Findings
indicates that a career decision has been
made and that there are questions on how to Objective 1: Describe the demographic
implement the decision. Scores using the characteristics of students.
three factor solution can range from 6 to 24 Fifty-seven percent of the students in the
on Identity Diffusion, 2 to 8 on Positive study were seniors while 43% were
Choice Conflict, and 3 to 12 on Tentative freshmen. The majority of students (64%)
Decision with higher scores indicating were male. A majority (97%) of the
greater indecision on each factor. Kelly and students were Caucasian. The majority of
Lee reported internal consistency the students (57%) grew up on a farm or in a
reliabilities of .82 (Identity Diffusion), .57 rural community, while 27% were from
(Positive Choice Conflict), and .63 towns or cities with populations of 10,000 or
(Tentative Decision). For this study, post- more people. Over half (51%) of the senior
hoc reliability analysis produced internal students indicated that they had a grade
consistency reliabilities of .82 (freshmen) point average of 3.00 or higher (on a 4 point
and .83 (seniors) for Identity Diffusion; .50 scale) while 35% reported a grade point
(freshmen) and .70 (seniors) for Positive average between 2.00 – 2.99. Because data
Choice Conflict; and .60 (freshmen) and .70 for this study were collected during the fall
(seniors) for Tentative Decision. There are semester, freshmen students had not yet
limitations when considering the low established grade point averages. Students
internal consistency found among freshmen represented each of the eight academic
for the Positive Choice Conflict and departments. Eighteen percent of the
Journal of Agricultural Education 133 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Esters Career Indecision Levels…
students in the study were enrolled in the Identity Diffusion factor indicating a slightly
departments of agricultural economics and higher level of indecision on this factor.
natural resource, ecology, and management Results also indicated that freshmen (M =
followed by agricultural biosystems 10.43, SD = 3.77) scored higher than seniors
engineering and animal science with 15%. (M = 9.56, SD = 3.42) on Identity Diffusion.
Fourteen percent of the students were Further, results show that females (M =
enrolled in the department of horticulture, 4.81, SD = 1.85) scored slightly higher than
and 10% of the students indicated that their males (M = 4.77, SD = 1.56) on Positive
majors were in the departments of Choice Conflict. Similarly, across grade
agricultural education and agronomy. level, freshmen (M = 4.80, SD = 1.52)
scored slightly higher than seniors on this
Objective 2: Describe the level of career factor (M = 4.77, SD = 1.78). Finally,
indecision of students. similar patterns were identified for males (M
The second objective was to describe the = 5.43, SD = 2.05) and females (M = 5.45,
level of career indecision of students in the SD = 2.05) in their scores on Tentative
college of agriculture. Table 1 summarizes Decision. However, Tentative Decision
the results of the level of career indecision scores across grade level yielded more
for males and females as well as for interesting results. As shown in Table 1,
freshmen and senior students. Overall, males freshmen (M = 6.06, SD = 2.06) scored
(M = 10.01, SD = 3.65) scored higher than much higher than seniors (M = 4.99, SD =
females (M = 9.77, SD = 3.49) on the 1.92) on the Tentative Decision factor.

Journal of Agricultural Education 134 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Esters Career Indecision Levels…
Table 1
Means and Standard Deviations for Identity Diffusion, Positive Choice Conflict, and Tentative
Decision Factors (n = 310)
Identity Diffusion
Freshmen Senior Total
Gender n M SD n M SD n M SD

Male 93 10.56 3.83 107 9.53 3.42 200 10.01 3.65

Female 37 10.11 3.61 73 9.60 3.45 110 9.77 3.49

Total 130 10.43 3.77 180 9.56 3.42 310 9.93 3.59

Positive Choice Conflict
Freshmen Senior Total
Gender n M SD n M SD n M SD

Male 93 4.60 1.41 107 4.92 1.68 200 4.77 1.56

Female 37 5.30 1.68 73 4.56 1.90 110 4.81 1.85

Total 130 4.80 1.52 180 4.77 1.78 310 4.78 1.67

Tentative Decision
Freshmen Senior Total
Gender n M SD n M SD n M SD

Male 93 5.90 2.11 107 5.02 1.92 200 5.43 2.05

Female 37 6.46 1.91 73 4.95 1.94 110 5.45 2.05

Total 130 6.06 2.06 180 4.99 1.92 310 5.44 2.05
Note. Scores on the Indecision Scale using Kelly and Lee’s (2002) three factor solution can
range from 6 to 24 on Identify Diffusion, 2 to 8 on Positive Choice Conflict, and 3 to 12 on
Tentative decision with higher scores indicating greater indecision on each factor. Scale: 1 = Not
At All Like Me; 2 = Only Slightly Like Me; 3 = Very Much Like Me; 4 = Exactly Like Me.

Table 2 presents correlations among substantial; and .70 or higher = very
gender, grade level, Identity Diffusion, strong (Davis, 1971). Relationships
Positive Choice Conflict, and Tentative between gender, grade level, Identity
Decision for the sample. The following Diffusion, Positive Choice Conflict, and
scale was used to describe the strength of Tentative Decision ranged from
the relationships: .01-.09 = negligible; negligible positive to substantial
.10-.29 = low; .30-.49 = moderate; .50-.69 = positive.

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Table 2
Intercorrelations Among Career Indecision Factors, Gender, and Grade Level (n = 310)
Variables 1 2 3 4

1. Gender --

2. Grade level .12 --

3. Identity Diffusion -.03 -.12* --

4. Positive Choice Conflict .01 -.02 .34** --

5. Tentative Decision .01 -.26** .62** .29**
*p < .05 ** p < .001

Objective 3: Describe the differences in the significant main effects for grade level
level of career indecision of students. were observed for Tentative Decision,
To determine the effect of gender and F(1, 306) = 24.103, p < .001,(cid:31)2 = .07
grade level on the three factors of the Career (Table 4). Results indicated that freshmen
Decision Scale, a factorial multivariate (M = 6.06, SD = 2.60) scored significantly
analysis of variance (MANOVA) was higher than seniors (M = 4.99, SD = 1.92; t =
performed. The dependent variables were 4.644, p < .001) indicating greater
Identity Diffusion, Positive Choice Conflict, indecision on this factor. Furthermore,
and Tentative Decision, and the independent there was a significant univariate
variables were gender (two levels: male and interaction effect of gender and grade
female) and grade level (two levels: level for Positive Choice Conflict, F(3, 306)
freshmen and seniors). All eta-squared ((cid:31)2) = 6.578, p < .05,(cid:31)2 = .02. None of the
results that are reported use the partial partial (cid:31)2 values for the MANOVA analyses
eta-squared formula (SSeffect/(SSeffect + approached Cohen’s criteria for small effect
SSerror)). Tabachnik and Fidell (1989) size (d = .20). This finding indicates that the
suggested that partial (cid:31)2 is an appropriate effect of gender on the level of career
alternate computation of (cid:31)2.) indecision (i.e., Positive Choice Conflict)
Significant multivariate results were differs depending upon the student’s grade
identified for the main effects of grade level level. Results show that freshman females
F(3, 304) = 8.852, p < .001,(cid:31)2 = .08 (M = 5.30, SD = 1.68; t = -2.496, p < .05)
(Table 3). There was also a significant scored significantly higher than
multivariate interaction effect of gender and freshman males (M = 4.60, SD = 1.41) on
grade level F(3, 304) = 4.028, p < .05,(cid:31)2 = the Positive Choice Conflict factor. In
.04. Nonsignificant main effects were addition, senior males (M = 4.92, SD = 1.68)
observed for gender. None of the partial (cid:31)2 scored higher than senior females (M = 4.56,
values for the MANOVA analyses SD = 1.90), however, this difference was not
approached Cohen’s criteria for small effect significant (t = 1.381, p > .05).
size (d = .20). At the univariate level,

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Table 3
Summary Data of MANOVA Results for Gender, Grade Level, and Gender x Grade Level
Interaction (n = 310)
Variables df Wilk’s Lambda F Partial Eta2
Gender 3 .989 1.148 .011

Grade level 3 .920 8.852** .080

Gender x Grade level 3 .962 4.028* .038
*p < .05 ** p < .001

Table 4
Summary Data of Univariate Results for Grade Level and Gender x Grade Level Interaction (n
= 310)
Independent Variables Dependent Variable df MS F Partial Eta2
Grade level Tentative Decision 1 94.604 24.103** .073

Gender x Grade level Positive Choice Conflict 1 18.105 6.578* .021
Note. There were no significant univariate main effects for gender across any of the Career
Decision factors; *p < .05 ** p < .001

Conclusions and Discussion For the Positive Choice Conflict factor,
females indicated slightly higher scores than
Undergraduate students in this study males, while similar results were found
were a traditional group of agriculture across grade level, with freshman scoring
students with more than half of the slightly higher than seniors. Overall, scores
senior students having above average grade obtained on this factor indicate that students
point averages. Additionally, students were experience a relatively greater degree of
in a variety of majors representing career indecision. Positive Choice Conflict
departments found in most colleges of represents the indecision of choosing one
agriculture. career from a number of attractive
Both males and females indicated a alternatives (Kelly & Lee, 2002). It is
moderate level of career indecision on the widely known that hundreds of career
Identity Diffusion factor. Similar opportunities exist for students to pursue in
observations were also true for freshmen and the agricultural sciences. Hence, scores on
senior undergraduate students. Kelly and this factor could be an indication that the
Lee (2002) defined Identity Diffusion as the level of career indecision students are
inability to adequately crystallize one’s experiencing may be a result of the number
career relevant characteristics or to see how of opportunities available in agriculture, thus
one’s personal characteristics can be making it more difficult to choose a specific
implemented in careers. Identity Diffusion career path.
involves a problem in the implementation of Tentative Decision indicates that a
a career decision occurring prior to the career decision has been made and that there
career decision-making process. Based on are questions on how to implement the
student scores on this factor, their level of decision (Kelly & Lee, 2002). Females in
indecision indicates that students may be this study indicated slightly higher
experiencing uncertainty about their career indecision scores than males on this factor.
direction or may even reflect problems or Interestingly, when scores on this factor
delays in identity development (Kelly & were compared across grade level, freshmen
Lee). scored much higher than seniors. Scores on
Journal of Agricultural Education 137 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Esters Career Indecision Levels…
this factor seem to indicate that freshmen, career development as well as providing
and to a lesser extent males, have questions courses for academic credit that focus on
on how to implement the decisions they career development (Herr, 1989). Hardesty
have made regarding a career. Although (1991) noted that career interventions such
Tentative Decision does not describe a as career courses have also been found to be
specific career decision problem (Kelly & effective in increasing career decidedness
Lee), it does indicate a difficulty occurring (i.e., lower career indecision) among
at the endpoint of the career decision- undergraduate students. Additionally,
making process. Hughes and Karp (2004) and Reese and
Finally, significant main effects for Miller (2006) concluded that students
grade level as well as interaction effects of benefit both vocationally and academically
gender and grade level were observed. For from participation in career courses with
the Tentative Decision factor, freshmen increased gains in knowledge of careers as
scored significantly higher than seniors well as their ability to make career-related
indicating a higher level of indecision on decisions.
this factor. A significant interaction was Students indicated career indecision
also observed between gender and grade resulted from having questions on how to
level for Positive Choice Conflict. Findings implement this decision. This finding is
indicated that freshmen females scored particularly noteworthy, because this may
significantly higher than freshman males on suggest that students are not seeking the
positive choice conflict. Additionally, assistance of their academic advisors,
senior males scored higher than senior specialists in their field of study, or more
females although these scores were not importantly, career guidance. Also, the
significantly different. Overall, students in finding that students in this study indicated
this study indicated moderate levels of moderate levels of career indecision could
career indecision representing career have implications for improved instructional
decision problems across all three factors of approaches at the high school level.
the CDS. Because career indecision is an issue for
high school students (Patton & Creed,
Recommendations and Implications 2001), it may be useful for agriculture
teachers to integrate lessons on career
Given that students indicated moderate decision-making into their curricula. For
to high levels of career indecision, a need example, Savickas (1990) found that high
may exist to emphasize the integration of school students who took a career decision-
various career development activities across making course had less career-related
courses offered in the College of Agriculture indecision at the end of the course than did a
and Life Sciences at Iowa State. This idea is comparison group of students who were not
especially important considering that enrolled in a career course.
students indicated career problems such as As with most research, the findings of
the inability to see how their personal this study suggest some areas to consider for
characteristics can be utilized in career future research. For example, because of the
decision-making as well as their inability to low internal consistency for Positive Choice
choose a career from a number of attractive Conflict, future research should identify
alternatives. For example, offering more additional items that can more reliably
intensive career exploration experiences will measure this factor. Also, future research
allow students to learn about themselves and should examine the level of career
the world of work, and enable them to make indecision using the Kelly and Lee (2002)
some initial decisions about education and factor solution with students from a more
career direction (such as entering the labor ethnically diverse population and across
force versus pursuing further education) other grade levels.
(Swanson & D’Achiardi, 2005). Additional In summary, because career indecision is
career interventions could also include a pervasive problem (Kelly & Lee, 2002),
infusing academic subject matter increased effort should be put forth
systematically with information pertinent to providing students with opportunities to: 1)
Journal of Agricultural Education 138 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Esters Career Indecision Levels…
increase career self-awareness, 2) develop psychology (pp. 7-54). Mahwah, NJ:
decision-making skills, 3) acquire Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
knowledge of current and emerging
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search skills (Griff, 1987). Doing so will (1996). A taxonomy of difficulties in career
better enable students to deal effectively decision-making. Journal of Counseling
with issues such as career indecision Psychology, 43(4), 510-526.
that negatively impact their career
development. Griff, N. (1987). Meeting the career
development needs of returning students.
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Journal of Agricultural Education 139 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007