ERIC EJ840149: Viewing Agricultural Education Research through a Qualitative Lens

2007·0.13 MB·English

by  ERIC

VIEWING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION RESEARCH THROUGH A
QUALITATIVE LENS

Kim E. Dooley, Professor
Texas A&M University

Abstract

The Journal of Agricultural Education has primarily published research that uses quantitative
research methods. Perhaps this is due partly to the lack of a qualitative research conceptual
framework to guide our profession. Most researchers in agricultural education were
academically prepared to conduct empirical research. Those who are in the professoriate are
teaching and mentoring graduate students without the prerequisite skills to conduct qualitative
research. In order to practice “good social science” research, agricultural educators need to
understand the history of qualitative research, common types used in education, sampling
techniques, data collection, analysis procedures, and issues of rigor and quality for the
qualitative research paradigm. This study uses a heuristic research approach through a content
analysis of the literature to create a qualitative research conceptual framework to guide the
Agricultural Education profession.

Introduction Based upon previous articles on the types of
research published in the Journal of
In 2003, Dyer, Haase-Wittler and Agricultural Education, this appears to be
Washburn indicated that the majority of the case.
research articles published in the Journal of Qualitative research can be defined in
Agricultural Education used quantitative, general terms as "multimethod in focus,
applied survey research methods. Their sub- involving an interpretive, naturalistic
heading on Philosophy of Research was approach to its subject matter…Qualitative
based upon a commonly used reference in researchers study things in their natural
research methods, Gall, Borg, and Gall settings, attempting to make sense of, or
(1996). Essentially it was stated that interpret, phenomena in terms of the
researchers approach inquiry based upon meanings people bring to them" (Denzin &
“epistemological assumptions about the Lincoln, 1994, p. 3).
nature of scientific knowledge and how to
acquire it” (p. 63). Campbell and Martin Purpose and Method
(1992) emphasize there are two world
views, one based upon breaking information The purpose of this study was to build a
down so that it can be measured qualitative conceptual framework to guide
(positivistic) and the other a holistic view the profession. With a heuristic research
(interpretive). Other researchers suggest that approach, this study used content analysis
there are actually three different through a review of the agricultural
methodological approaches: empirical education and qualitative research
(positivist), hermeneutic (interpretive) and literature to build the conceptual framework.
critical methodologies (Merriam, 1998; The analysis included the history of
Miller, 2006; Wardlow, 1989). Hermeneutic qualitative research, types, sampling, data
and critical methodologies fall under the collection, data analysis, coding
qualitative research paradigm. Our procedures, and issues of rigor and
profession has a few qualitative researchers, trustworthiness for the qualitative research
although “those operating in this paradigm paradigm. A conceptual model is
may have experienced difficulty in gaining presented in the final section of the
acceptance among peers” (Miller, p. 109). manuscript.
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Dooley Viewing Agricultural Education…
Heuristic research “refers to a process of doctoral program, most agricultural
internal search through which one discovers education departments do not teach a
the nature and meaning of experience and qualitative research course at the present
develops methods and procedures for further time. Many professors who are mentoring
investigation and analysis” (Moustakas, graduate students have had no formal
1994, p. 17). It is a type of coursework in qualitative methods. In
phenomenological research where “the reviewing the research capacity of our
researcher is present throughout the process profession, qualitative research skills had the
and, while understanding the phenomenon lowest score for faculty expertise (Greiman
with increasing depth, the researcher also & Birkenholz, 2003).
experiences growing self-awareness and Williams (1997) suggested that graduate
self-knowledge” (Moustakas, p. 17). This is students should practice “good science”
sometimes called an “aha” moment; the based upon seven core concepts:
word eureka comes from the word heuristic.
(1) correct choice of a research problem,
Qualitative Research from the (2) logical design, (3) sustained
Agricultural Education Perspective productivity, (4) insights based on
interpretation of research results, (5)
Miller (2006) provided a philosophical contribution of the conceptual
framework for agricultural education framework of a discipline, (6)
research. He expressed concern that others knowledge of the developing literature
have a low opinion of agricultural education in a chosen field, and (7) effective
research because it is “soft” or social science communication of findings in
research and not experimental. He suggested professional forums. (p. 32)
that “the problem with agricultural
education research is not always poor These “good science” concepts are
quality; the problem may be the lens through representative of both positivistic and
which agricultural researchers view the qualitative research paradigms and serve to
standards for quality research. Their lens is guide our profession in terms of rigor and
‘positivistic,’ and has a discipline-specific quality.
focus” (p. 107). Miller continued that “our Due to the vast majority of quantitative
interests are primarily in interpretive and research in the Journal of the American
critical science. Yet, most of our Association of Teacher Educators in
preparation has been in learning to conduct Agriculture (84%), Wardlow (1989) posited
empirical research. Our methods must be alternative modes of inquiry for the
broadened and each interest area profession. His implications noted that
represented in departmental faculty” (Miller, “social science research does not always
p. 108). lend itself to quantitative description. There
In 1987, Warmbrod suggested that are phenomena for which a deeper
graduate programs preparing future understanding of personal attitudes and
agricultural education faculty should devote values is required” (p. 5). These
more attention to research methodology, alternative modes of inquiry are often called
data analysis, and reporting. Miller (2006) post-positivistic but according to some
agreed and suggested that new hires should historians are actually pre-positivistic.
have these broadened research Qualitative approaches to research have
methodological and interdisciplinary skills. historically guided practice for
He also contended that “considerations of agriculture.
other approaches to inquiry beyond the
traditional positivistic approach are not often History of Qualitative Research
included in the graduate programs preparing
future agricultural education researchers” Life does not come to us like a math
(Miller, p. 114). Although some of the problem, but more like a story. There is a
institutions preparing graduate students setting or context, there are characters or
require qualitative methods as a part of the respondents, and there is conflict or a
Journal of Agricultural Education 33 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Dooley Viewing Agricultural Education…
problem to address. Storytelling is how we such as Glaser and Strauss, Corbin,
have traditionally learned and passed on Miles and Huberman (and more
knowledge from one generation to g e n e rally, the grounded theory school)
the next. Folklore, oral history, and was to increase the “scientific” nature of
apprenticeships were common ways s o cial science research by developing as
to pass on knowledge before the written much as possible the equivalence to
word. quantitative criteria of “good” research
Early qualitative methods evolved out of practice…Interpretive approaches share
the field of sociology in the 15th and 16th a common emphasis on the analysis of
centuries as a result of problems constructions of meaning, of the ways
encountered by early explorers such as people make sense of their everyday
Columbus (Vidich & Lyman, 1994). It was activities and surroundings. In contrast
not until the 17th century that modern to positivist and post-positivist
science was emphasized. Before sociology perspectives, subjectivity is seen as a
was a “profession,” descriptive field notes crucial and positive component of
(thick description) were communicated research in interpretive approaches
primarily by missionaries and explorers, (Mottier, 2005).
with a Western bias. Comte, the social
theorist who was the founder of sociology in Common Types of Qualitative
1842, proposed the “comparative method” to Research in Education
study the evolution of culture and
civilization in the 19th century, the time Terms often associated with qualitative
period when qualitative research emerged as research include naturalistic inquiry,
a field (Atkinson & Hammersley, 1994; interpretive research, field study,
Bogdan & Biklen, 1992, Tesch, 1990; participant observation, inductive research,
Vidich & Lyman). case study, and ethnography (Merriam,
From the early 1900s until World War 1998). The characteristics of this
II, qualitative research within the social paradigm are (a) an interest in
sciences, such as the Chicago School, used understanding the meaning people have
positivist perspectives. They produced constructed, (b) understanding the
“objective” descriptions deemed to be phenomenon from the participants’
“valid” and “reliable.” The subjectivity and perspectives (emic), (c) the researcher is
bias of the social science researcher was the primary instrument for data collection
thought to obscure accuracy and needed to and analysis, (d) it usually involves
be eliminated (Mottier, 2005). It was not fieldwork, (e) it primarily employs an
until the interpretive return of subjectivity inductive research strategy, and (f) the
that disciplines such as ethnomethodology, product is richly descriptive (Merriam, pp.
phenomenology, and hermeneutics fully 6-8). Additionally, the research design
evolved (Rabinow & Sullivan, 1987). The is emergent and flexible, the sample size
term hermeneutics is generally used to refer is small, and the researcher spends
to the interpretation of the meaning of considerable time in the natural setting.
cultural objects (texts, documents) and Although approximately 26 approaches
social practices (Mottier). Post-positivistic to the methodology exist, there are five
philosophies accept that inquiry is types commonly used in educational
hermeneutic, where interpretation and research: (a) basic or generic; (b)
explanation, objectivity and subjectivity ethnography; (c) phenomenology; (d)
cannot be completely separated (Mottier). grounded theory; and (e) case study. For the
basic or generic study, a researcher would
Whereas positivist research aims to offer include description, interpretation, and
“objective” accounts of reality, post- understanding in the form of recurrent
positivist perspectives recognize the patterns, themes or categories (Merriam,
flawed nature of all methods, and 1998). This is the most common type of
therefore the impossibility of ever fully qualitative method used in agricultural
achieving this aim. The aim of authors education.
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Ethnography focuses on society and understand one’s self and the world in
culture from the anthropological view. The which one lives (Moustakas, p. 17).
study seeks to uncover and describe beliefs, Grounded theory is designed to build a
values, and attitudes that impact group substantive theory regarding some aspect of
behavior (Merriam, 1998). Ethnography practice in the real world (Merriam, 1998).
involves extensive fieldwork because it is The approach is focused on understanding
through direct observations (participant the nature and meaning of an experience for
observation) of the activities, a particular group of people in a particular
communications and interactions with the setting (Glaser & Strauss, 1967). According
people that the results emerge (Atkinson & to Strauss and Corbin (1990), grounded
Hammersley, 1994; Moustakas, 1994). This theory should be true to everyday reality,
approach requires skill with writing detailed make sense to those involved, and be
field notes and gathering a variety of applicable to a variety of related contexts.
information from different perspectives. Grounded theory researchers continually
Quotations should be used to represent question gaps in the data and stress open
participants’ viewpoints in their own words processes. Context and social structure is
(Moustakas). This approach would be important in order to generate theory and
appropriate for classroom-based, data. Data collection, coding, and analysis
international, and extension education occur simultaneously. It is an inductive
research. process where theory must be grounded in
Phenomenology is based upon the data (Moustakas, 1994).
experiential underpinnings of knowledge Often researchers refer to the case study
from the field of sociology (Holstein & primarily as a style for reporting the results
Gubrium, 1994). All qualitative research has of a qualitative study. Case studies can be
its philosophical roots in phenomenology, used in both quantitative and qualitative
but there are distinctions that make a study a research. Case study is an intensive, holistic
phenomenological one. Empirical description and analysis of a single unit or
phenomenological research is concerned bounded system and can be combined with
with the essence or structure of a any of the other types previously mentioned
phenomenon. It uses data that are the (Merriam, 1998). According to Stake (1994)
participant’s and researcher’s firsthand “the reader comes to know some things told,
experiences (Merriam, 1998; Moustakas, as if he or she had experienced them (p.
1994). According to Patton (2002), essences 240). Case study research includes “detailed
are the core meanings mutually understood contextual analysis of a limited number of
through a phenomenon commonly events or conditions and their relationships”
experienced. The approach “involves a (Dooley, 2002, p. 335). A good case
return to the experience in order to includes the setting, characters, events,
obtain comprehensive descriptions that problems, and conflicts, much like a richly
provide the basis for a reflective structural detailed story.
analysis that portrays the essences of the
experience” (Moustakas, p. 13). The original Qualitative Sampling and Data
data is comprised of naïve descriptions Collection Methods
obtained through open-ended questions and
dialog. Then the researcher describes the Once a researcher identifies the problem
structures of the experience based on and the most appropriate qualitative
analysis and interpretation of the story. A approach, the next step is to determine the
type of phenomenological research is unit of analysis (Merriam, 1998). Deciding
heuristics. where, when, who, and how are critical to
any study design. The “who” dimension in
Heuristics begins with a question or qualitative research is a nonprobabilistic
problem which the researcher seeks to sample, often called purposive or
illuminate or answer. The question is purposeful. “Purposeful sampling is based
one that has been a personal challenge on the assumption that the investigator
and puzzlement in the search to wants to discover, understand, and gain
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insight and therefore must select a sample Interviewers should avoid Yes-or-No
from which the most can be learned” questions and leading the respondent.
(Merriam, 1998, p. 61). To select a A focus group can be defined as a
purposeful sample, specific criteria should “carefully planned series of discussions
be established that reflect the focus of the designed to obtain perceptions on a defined
study. Types of purposeful sampling include area of interest in a permissive, non-
(a) typical, (b) unique, extreme or deviant, threatening environment” (Krueger &
(c) maximum variation or heterogeneity, (d) Casey, 2000, p. 5). Essentially it is an
convenience, and (e) snowball, chain or interview designed for small groups that is
network (Berg, 2001; Merriam; Patton, guided by a facilitator or moderator (Berg,
2002). 2001). It can be used for collecting
For a typical sample, the researcher is qualitative data in settings where a one-shot
seeking the “average person, situation, collection is appropriate. Interactions among
or instance of the phenomenon of and between respondents should stimulate
interest” (Merriam, 1998, p. 62). A unique active dialog about the phenomenon under
sample reflects the atypical or unusual investigation.
perspective. Maximum variation attempts In combination with an interviewing
to capture the most divergent viewpoints. technique, observations can maximize
Convenience sampling can be used based the researcher’s ability to grasp motives,
on time, money, location, and beliefs, concerns, and interests.
availability, although caution is advised Observations during data collection
that credibility may be lost if this is the provide a framework for the context and
only basis on which sample selection is help the researcher interpret findings
made (Merriam). Snowball, chain, or built upon tacit knowledge (Lincoln &
network sampling involves asking each Guba, 1985). Patton (2002) adds that a
respondent for additional respondents skilled observer learns to pay attention
based upon the determined criteria. For to what they see and hear and to then
all these examples, a set sample size is not write descriptive field notes. Knowing how
the goal. Qualitative sampling is to determine details from trivia and
emergent and not set a priori. Lincoln validate or triangulate what is observed
and Guba (1985) recommend selection to with other data sources allows the
the point of redundancy or data researcher to better understand and
saturation. capture the context (Patton). Observations
Primary data collection methods include can also range from focused to
interviews, focus groups, observations, and unstructured.
unobtrusive measures (documents and other Another rich source of data are
archival data). Interviews have been called a unobtrusive measures—documents, letters,
conversation with a purpose (Erlandson, memos, agendas, meeting minutes, records,
Harris, Skipper, & Allen, 1993). Interviews newspaper clippings, diaries, pictures,
can be (a) highly structured with the websites—just about any archival
wording and order of questions information available. As a part of the
predetermined, (b) semi-structured with a research design and initial entry into a
mix of more and less structured questions, or research site, the researcher should ask for
(c) unstructured with open-ended questions access to potentially important documents
that provide flexibility (Merriam, 1998). The and records. This type of data provides
first approach is actually an oral form of a information that cannot be observed.
survey and is more appropriate for Documents are “valuable not only because
positivistic research. Most qualitative of what can be learned directly from them
researchers are guided by a set of basic but also as stimulus for paths of inquiry that
questions and issues to explore but can be pursued only through direct
deviations may occur in order to capture observation and interviewing” (Patton, 2002,
nuances and emerging trends not previously p. 294). All of these data collection types
determined. Questions that stimulate longer help to tell the story from multiple
answers will produce richer data. perspectives.
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Qualitative Data Analysis and procedures exists, there are some common
Coding Procedures features (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Most
qualitative researchers affix codes to a set of
Tesch (1990) suggests that there are field notes drawn from observations or
three overarching types of qualitative interviews, noting reflections in the margins.
analysis dependent upon the philosophical A technique for sorting and searching
approach. The first is when the interest is in through data to identify similar words and
the characteristics of language as phrases, relationships, patterns, and themes
communication or as the cognitive is always present (called unitizing).
representation of culture. Content analysis is Unitizing data is defined as “disaggregating
commonly used for this approach. This data into the smallest pieces of information
procedure involves designing relevant that may stand alone as independent
categories and sorting words, sentences, thoughts in the absence of additional
phrases, and paragraphs into these information other than a broad
categories. understanding of the context” (Erlandson et
The second type of analysis is when the al., 1992, p. 117). Data analysis throughout
interest is in the discovery of regularities the process allows the researcher to “test”
and the patterns or connections between and working hypotheses that emerge from the
among these regularities. The constant initial patterns for the next wave of data
comparative method is an example of this collection. Qualitative researchers
type of analysis. In theory construction, continually compare incidents and compile
concepts are first identified through open or sort data by “look-alike” characteristics.
coding by looking at the “data line by line The constant comparison starts to generate
for empirical indicators consisting of theoretical properties (Glaser & Strauss,
behavioral actions and events, observed and 1967).
described in documents and in the words of Miles and Huberman (1994) purport that
the interviewees” (Tesch, 1990, p. 85). A qualitative analysis consists of three
provisional code or name is given to that interactive processes: (a) data reduction; (b)
category. Once the category becomes clear, data display; and (c) conclusion drawing and
the researcher uses axial coding, consisting verification. Data reduction involves
of intense analysis with one category at a selecting, focusing, simplifying, abstracting,
time resulting in “cumulative knowledge and transforming the data that appear in
about relationships between that category field notes or transcripts. Data display often
and other categories and subcategories” takes the form of 3x5 notecards, matrices,
(Tesch, p. 86). The researcher uses specific graphs, charts, or diagrams—all designed to
criteria to create core categories or themes assemble organized information so the
through selective coding in the final stage. researcher can begin to draw conclusions.
A third type of analysis is when the Coding, storage, and retrieval methods allow
interest is in the comprehension of the the researcher to verify the meanings that
meaning of text or action (Tesch, 1990). In have emerged from the data. “Qualitative
order to check research bias in this case, a data analysis is a continuous, iterative
technique called bracketing can be used to enterprise” (Miles & Huberman, p. 12).
suspend the researcher’s meanings and Once these three processes are complete, the
interpretations and enter into the world of researcher is ready to tell the story.
the unique individual who was interviewed
(Tesch). The researcher reads the entire set Issues of Rigor and Trustworthiness in
of data and immerses in it holistically. Qualitative Research
Meaningful units relevant to the research
questions become the theme and the process The issue that seems to receive the most
continues similarly to the constant discussion at our national meetings is
comparative method. verifying qualitative methods, especially the
Qualitative data analysis begins when lack of “generalizability” due to small
the first piece of data is collected. Although sample size. Lincoln and Guba (1985)
variation in data analysis and coding provide techniques for establishing rigor and
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Dooley Viewing Agricultural Education…
trustworthiness for qualitative research. characteristics and elements in the situation
Trustworthiness relates to the degree of that are most relevant to the problem or
confidence that the findings of the study issue being pursued and focusing on them in
represent the respondents and their context. detail” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 304).
To operationalize with positivistic terms, The term triangulation derived from
internal validity is the extent to which the radio broadcasting where the angle of
findings of the research display a antennas pinpointed the source. Although
relationship with reality (the truth). This some believe qualitative researchers should
“truth value” is based upon one reality; use three data collection methods to achieve
qualitative research assumes that there can triangulation, the concept is more about
be multiple realities (Erlandson et al., 1992; verification than number of methods. It can
Lincoln & Guba). Thus, the term internal be achieved with the use of multiple and
validity is not appropriate. The concept of different sources, methods, investigators,
truth value is nonetheless important. In and theories (Lincoln & Guba, 1985).
qualitative research it is called credibility. Referential adequacy materials
Credibility is achieved by representing those (documents and other archival data) provide
multiple realities adequately. Specific a holistic view of the context and aid in the
strategies to accomplish this task include (a) meaning or understanding of the
prolonged engagement, (b) persistent phenomenon for the researcher’s analyses
observation, (c) triangulation, (d) referential and interpretations. These materials provide
adequacy materials, (e) peer debriefing, and a “slice of life” that can be obtained only
(f) member checks (Erlandson et al.; Lincoln using unobtrusive measures (Erlandson et
& Guba). al., 1992).
Prolonged engagement requires that the Being immersed in the context is
researcher spend sufficient time in the important, but sometimes it is good to step
context to overcome distortions. Prolonged away to reflect and “review perceptions,
engagement helps the researcher to build insights, and analyses with professionals
trust, develop rapport with respondents, and outside the context who have enough
to obtain a wide scope of accurate data. The general understanding of the nature of the
researcher should be able to interpret daily study to debrief the researcher and provide
events and understand the phenomenon as a feedback that will refine and, frequently,
result. redirect the inquiry process” (Erlandson et
al., 1992, p. 31). This is called peer
While the researcher may be able to debriefing. Peer debriefing allows the
understand the events that occur and the researcher to test working hypotheses and
relationships that exist in social context find alternative explanations.
in the same way that they are understood “The member check, whereby data,
by a person who is part of that context, analytic categories, interpretations, and
nothing is added to what could be told conclusions are tested with members of
by any intelligent “native” unless the those stakeholding groups from whom the
researcher can identify those events and data were originally collected, is the most
relationships that are most relevant for crucial technique for establishing
solving a particular problem or resolving credibility” (Lincoln & Guba, 1985, p. 314).
a particular issue. (Erlandson et al., Member checks can occur during the
1992, p. 30) interview as a summary back to the person
who provided it or through transcripts sent
This quote describes the importance of to respondents for feedback, corrections, and
persistent observation in order to pursue clarifications.
interpretations through an iterative process External validity is judged by whether
of constant analysis. Persistent observation the findings can be applied in other settings
also helps the researcher obtain in-depth or with other subjects (generalizability). The
data and to sort relevancies from generalizability of a study in the traditional
irrelevancies. The “purpose of persistent sense does not fit within the axioms of
observation is to identify those qualitative research because the context, and
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Dooley Viewing Agricultural Education…
respondents within it, will never be the Researchers seek to check biases and
same. That is not to say that a qualitative ensure that the findings are the products of
study will have no relevance or applicability the data collected. Maintaining objectivity or
for other contexts because transferability neutrality requires a “distance”
can occur if there are shared characteristics. between the researcher and subjects.
In order for transferability to occur, the Qualitative researchers are fully engaged
researcher must collect detailed data in and interacting with the respondents—
context and report the data using thick events that allow for richer description
description (Erlandson et al., 1992). From and deeper understanding. That is not
these thick descriptions, the reader to say that the researcher should
vicariously enters into the setting and can manipulate the findings in a particular
make judgments about the applicability of direction. The qualitative researcher must
the data to their context. Transferability is take special precaution to check biases and
grounded in adequate description, thus it is ensure that the findings are indeed the
imperative that the data be provided by words, feelings, and beliefs of the
those who know it best. Purposive or respondents. Data must be traceable to the
purposeful sampling helps to “maximize the original (raw) data sources and
range of specific information that can be interpretations logically assembled
obtained from and about that context” (Erlandson et al., 1994). This is called
(Erlandson et al., 1993, p. 33). confirmability. The use of an audit
Quality research also provides evidence trail for dependability of the processes also
that if a study were to be replicated with can be used to judge the products of the
similar subjects, the findings could be inquiry. In this case, it is called
repeated. Reliability of the instrument is a confirmability audit. Conclusions,
important to ensure consistency and interpretations, and recommendations should
accuracy when collecting quantitative data. be traced directly back to their sources.
Reliability depends on replication. As stated These trustworthiness measures ensure that
previously, with multiple realities and the researcher will tell the story giving voice
varying contexts, replication of qualitative to the respondents.
findings is impossible (although methods
could be replicated). For qualitative studies Conclusions, Recommendations,
the researcher wishes to ensure and Implications
dependability of the findings. The intent is
to track the process by providing an audit Through the heuristic approach and
trail with documentation on methodological content analysis of the literature, a
decisions and reflections. This is called the conceptual framework appropriate for
dependability audit. agricultural education emerged (Figure 1).

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Trustworthiness Criteria
•Credibility (internal validity)

•Transferability (external validity)

•Dependability (reliability)

•Confirmability(objectivity)

Data Analysis
History
•Content Analysis
•Constant Comparative
•Open Coding Primary Types
•Axial Coding •Basic or Generic

•Selective Coding Qualitative •Ethnography

•Iterative Process Research •Phenomenology

•Data Reduction •Grounded Theory

•Data Display •Case Study
•Conclusion Drawing/
Verification Purposive Sampling
Data Collection •Typical
•Interviews •Unique, Extreme, or Deviant
•Focus Groups •Maximum Variation
•Observations •Convenience
•UnobtrustiveMeasures •Snowball, Chain, or Network

Figure 1. A qualitative research conceptual framework for agricultural educators.

In the center, represented by a circle, is to focus on the strategies or techniques to
the overarching concept that served as a use. In qualitative research, emergent design
focus for this review. The arrows both enter provides the researcher the flexibility to
and exit the qualitative research circle change processes to ensure interpretations
because methods continue to evolve over are based upon the perspective of the
time for specific needs and disciplines. r e s p o ndents. Fully describing the
One exception to this is the history of phenomenon under investigation allows both
qualitative research box, which is t h e r e searcher and the reader of the research
mono-directional, because history has to determine transferability and relevance of
defined, shaped, and provided the t h e research. Through qualitative
context for the conceptual model as a p p r o a ches, the researcher is able to
it stands today. The historical context c o n tribute theory grounded in practice to
could change qualitative research e n h a nce the conceptual framework of the
methods in the future, as was illustrated d i s c ipline. Thick description and case study
in how the pendulum swung from reporting provide the reader vicarious
subjectivity to objectivity (Chicago School experiences to better understand the
in early 1900s) back to subjectivity. p h e n o m enon (communicating the findings
The concepts are neither linear nor through storytelling). It is recommended that
cyclical—instead the process is a g r icultural education researchers develop
continuous and iterative (Miles & appropriate research designs to solve
Huberman, 1994). complex problems relevant to the
As Williams (1997) suggested, profession. An implication exists that
agricultural educators need to practice “good qualitative research methods should be
science” (or should we say good social taught in our graduate programs and
science). Ultimately, the choice of research future professional development
problem should drive the methods used for sessions at our professional meetings
sampling, data collection, and analysis. A should focus on qualitative research
logical research design helps the researcher methods.
Journal of Agricultural Education 40 Volume 48, Number 4, 2007
Dooley Viewing Agricultural Education…
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