ERIC EJ839875: Predicting Scores of Beginning Agricultural Education Teachers on the Praxis II Examination

2008·0.08 MB·English

by  ERIC

PREDICTING SCORES OF BEGINNING AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION TEACHERS
ON THE PRAXIS II EXAMINATION

Moreetsi Thobega, Lecturer
Botswana College of Agriculture
Greg Miller, Professor
Iowa State University

Abstract

This descriptive-correlational study predicted performance of beginning agricultural education
teachers on principles of learning and teaching (PLT) and Agriculture content (AgC) tests of the
PRAXIS II examination using demographic and academic variables. Performance on the
PRAXIS II was used for issuing initial teaching licenses to the agricultural education teachers.
The study used existing records from the Department Agricultural Education at Iowa State
University. Professional education GPA explained significant variability in PLT scores. Males
scored higher than females on the AgC test. Agriculture GPA did not explain significant
variability in AgC scores. Additional research should be conducted to determine whether similar
results would be obtained with other licensure areas. Further research should explore the
relationship between gender and performance on the AgC test of the PRAXIS II examination.

Introduction/Theoretical Framework 2003; Rotherham & Mead, 2003). Teacher
credentials refer to the teachers’ subject
Improving public education has gained matter knowledge, pedagogical skills, and
much political attention since publication of understanding of cultural and psychological
the 1983 educational reform report, “A factors that affect student learning
Nation at Risk.” One of the (Halloway, 2002). Educational credentials
recommendations of the report was that depend on the type of professional
teacher education programs should prepare preparation that teachers undergo. Teacher
prospective teachers who demonstrated an preparation however, is an elusive
aptitude for teaching and competence in an phenomenon (Wilson, Floden & Ferrini-
academic discipline (National Commission Mundy, 2001). Modes and models of teacher
on Excellence in Education, 1983; Nyirenda, preparation vary from institution to
1994). Recently, the No Child Left Behind institution, and it means “many different
(NCLB) legislation has re-emphasized the things across the United States” (Wilson et
importance of a quality teaching force (U.S. al., p. 5).
Department of Education, 2002). NCLB Teacher preparation models are borne
requires that students achieve high standards out of somewhat different philosophic
and that schools be accountable (Brownell, viewpoints in regards to the kind and depth
Sindelar, Bishop, Langley & Seo, 2002; of subject matter knowledge that teachers
Halloway, 2002). It also requires that should have; the kind and extent of
teachers be highly qualified by 2005-2006 pedagogical training that teachers should
(Brownell et al.; Haycock, 2003; U.S. undergo; the kind, timing, and length of
Department of Education, 2002). Teacher prospective teachers’ field experiences; the
quality is thus regarded as an important states’, universities’ and districts’
factor in enhancing public education (Arhar, educational policies and strategies that pre-
2003). service teacher education programs should
There are several professional attributes conform to; and modes of prevailing
that define teacher quality. One is teachers’ teacher certification programs (Wilson et al.
educational credentials (Kaplan & Owings, 2001). Grossman (1992) found that while
Journal of Agricultural Education 99 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008
Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
researchers of teacher education “see the actual classroom competence. A few
process of learning to teach through the lens examples of such states are Georgia,
of subject matter” (p. 171), others view it Arizona, Indiana, and Hawaii (U.S.
from an explicitly moral and ethical stance. Department of Education, 2000). Most of
Grossman’s assertion underscores Wilson et the states use ETS’s PRAXIS test series as
al.’s findings that all teacher preparation the licensing examinations (Flippo, 2002).
models are centered on subject matter and The PRAXIS series includes three tests.
pedagogical knowledge. PRAXIS I (Academic Skill Assessments) is
Subject matter and pedagogical a qualifying test for individuals entering
knowledge are thus important factors in teacher education programs. PRAXIS II
determining teacher quality (Halloway, (Subject Assessments) is a test offered prior
2002; Kaplan & Owings, 2003; Rotherham to issuance of initial teaching license. The
& Mead, 2003); however, questions that examinations assess subject matter and
address the minimum level of subject matter pedagogical knowledge of pre-service
knowledge and pedagogical knowledge have teachers. PRAXIS III (Classroom
to be answered. For example, how much and Performance Assessments) is an
what types of pedagogical training, observation-based evaluation of beginning
knowledge, and skills must teachers attain in teachers’ classroom performance (ETS,
order to teach students effectively 2005b).
(Rotherman & Mead)? Does obtaining a Even though NCLB legislation
Master’s or Ph.D. degree translate into one encourages teacher licensing, it does not
being an effective teacher (Lakdawalla, regulate the teacher licensing examinations.
2002)? Does studying a subject as a major as What to test, when to test, and which
opposed to a minor help teachers to be examination agency to contract are left to
effective (Rotherman & Mead)? the discretion of individual states, so
In the backdrop of the questions about consistency for teacher licensing might be
teacher quality, the NCLB legislation set the somewhat questionable (Kaplan & Owings,
minimum attributes of a highly qualified 2003; U.S. Department of Education, 2005).
teacher at having a bachelor’s degree, Also, researchers continue to have doubts
having full state certification or a teaching about reliability and validity of teacher
license, and demonstrating competence in licensure tests. Berk (1999) asserted that
each subject they teach (U.S. Department of among other concerns, teacher licensure
Education, 2002). A survey by the National tests need special attention in regards to
Center for Education Statistics (NCES, their reliability and validity evidence related
2001) revealed that virtually all public to construction of response items and in
school teachers in the nation had a their reliability and validity evidence related
bachelor’s degree, and 45% held a Master’s to cut-score decisions. Wise and Leibbrand
degree. Literature did not reveal whether (2001) argued that teacher licensing is one
satisfying the minimum attributes can of the facets of teacher preparation which
practically translate to high performance in does not have set standards. Different
teaching. From the NCLB perspective, teacher quality assurance systems work
possession of a teaching license is the most independently (Wise & Leibbrand), which
reliable measure of high quality teaching leads to licensure examination not being
(U.S. Department of Education, 2002). reliable across different licensure systems
Nationally, 44 states use pre-service and states.
teachers’ performance on external The decision by some states to contract
examinations to offer teaching licenses. The ETS might have been in response to the
states rely on assessments by two testing NCLB’s recommendation that on top of
companies, namely, National Evaluation holding a bachelor’s degree, highly qualified
Systems (NES) and The Educational Testing teachers should have a state license and
Services (ETS) (U.S. Department of should have demonstrated strong subject
Education, 2005). In 39 of the states, the area competency (Arhar, 2003). However, it
licensing examinations assess subject matter is not yet established whether high
knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and performance on the state licensing
Journal of Agricultural Education 100 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008
Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
examination translates to high performance The Board decided not to use the
in the teaching job. PRAXIS II test for initial teacher licensing.
Iowa does not use Praxis II for initial It argued that there were multiple
teacher licensing. To get such a license, the benchmarks against which institutions
state requires that individuals must have prepared teachers in Iowa thus rendering the
graduated from PRAXIS II tests unnecessary (Hawkins,
2006). Also, the Board did not report
approved teacher preparation programs whether PRAXIS II tests were found to be
with a baccalaureate degree and have valid and reliable for use as determinants for
completed coursework equivalent to a initial teacher licensing. Iowa’s educators
major for the endorsements needed for regard the state’s program for prospective
specific teaching assignments. Each teachers as more comprehensive and
teacher candidate must be recommended balanced than the PRAXIS II
by the college and complete a examination (Rossi, 2006). However, the
background check in order to obtain U. S. Department of Education continues to
initial teacher license (Iowa Department demand that beginning teachers need to
of Education, 2005, p. 1). pass a standardized content area test before
being issued teaching licenses (Hawkins).
While in college, candidates must have As a result, beginning 2007 new
demonstrated proficiency on rigorous elementary school teachers in Iowa will
standards and competencies through have to take PRAXIS II content area
performance on multiple assessments of examination before being issued initial
content knowledge, professional knowledge, teaching license (Rossi). Use of college
and pedagogy (Iowa Department of academic measures shall be continued for
Education). Iowa’s licensing requirements secondary school teachers (Hawkins). It is
conform to the subject matter knowledge, plausible, though, to expect the Iowa Board
pedagogical knowledge, and teaching of Educational Examiners to consider
competence model common nationally, but extending the PRAXIS II examination
in the case of Iowa, the model standards are requirement to secondary school teachers in
based on the internal college assessments. the future. If the Board makes the
The Iowa Board of Educational consideration, knowledge of the association
Examiners administered the PRAXIS II between the college academic measures and
examination as a pilot study in 2002 and the PRAXIS II pilot-test scores may inform
2003 (Iowa Board of Educational the decision. Therefore, a need exists to
Examiners, 2003). According to the Board, examine the correlation between
the two-year pilot program would determine performance on the PRAXIS II pilot
validity, reliability, cut scores, and the need examination and existing college academic
for the PRAXIS II examination. The pilot- measures. If academic measures like
study included tests for pedagogy and one number of credits earned and grade point
content area for each individual who was average (GPA) in specific college courses
applying for an initial teaching license; it could predict beginning teachers’ content
was administered to individuals graduating and pedagogical knowledge, then the
during the 2001/02 and 2002/03 academic PRAXIS II examination would be a
years. Fifty graduating seniors majoring in redundant measure of currently available
agricultural education at Iowa State information.
University (ISU) who were seeking initial
teaching license between September 2001 Purpose and Objectives
and March 2003 participated in the pilot-
study. For the agricultural education majors, The purpose of this study was to predict
the examination included an agriculture the performance of pre-service agriculture
content (AgC) test and the principles of teachers on PRAXIS II tests using selected
learning and teaching (PLT) test for grades 7 demographic and academic variables.
through 12. Specific objectives were:

Journal of Agricultural Education 101 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008
Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
1. To describe the 2001/02 and 2002/03 ETS did not specifically report validity
pre-service agriculture teachers in and reliability for AgC and PLT tests in
terms of age, gender, ACT score, question. However, in their report, titled
type of matriculation (transfer “Validity for Licensing Tests: A Brief
status), transfer credits, college Orientation,” ETS (2004) asserted that
major, college minor, professional validity for the PRAXIS series was
education GPA, agriculture content accomplished through “a systematic analysis
GPA, teaching status, and PRAXIS of job requirements (knowledge and/or skill
II examination scores. level)” (p. 3). According to ETS, the
2. To predict performance on the analysis involves gaining input of
principles of learning and teaching representative samples of educators and
(PLT) (PRAXIS II) test using reviewing national disciplinary standards.
professional education GPA, age, Test development committees then worked
gender, ACT score, type of with ETS’s subject experts to conduct
matriculation (transfer status), reviews for test content appropriateness and
transfer credits, college major, fairness. Each state or licensing agency then
college minor, and agriculture GPA. sets standards or passing scores by
3. To predict performance on the evaluating job-relatedness of the test for the
Agriculture content (AgC) (PRAXIS state’s entry-level teachers (ETS, 2004).
II) test using agriculture GPA, age, Regarding reliability, ETS (2006)
gender, ACT score, type of reported that their assessments are
matriculation (transfer status), rigorously tested to check whether they are
transfer credits, college major, reliable and as free as possible of errors
college minor, and professional caused by random variation and external
education GPA. factors.
The demographic and college academic
Methods data were obtained from existing
departmental records. The data included:
The population for this descriptive- number of credit hours for animal science,
correlational study consisted of 50 seniors agronomy; agribusiness, horticulture,
majoring in agricultural education at Iowa agricultural mechanics, and professional
State University. The 50 subjects graduated education courses. Agriculture content and
during the 2001/02 and 2002/03 academic professional education GPAs were
years and were required by Iowa Board of calculated using the course grades and total
Educational Examiners to take the PRAXIS number of credit hours for each course.
II tests to qualify for initial teacher Descriptive statistics were used to
licensing. summarize the data. Step-wise regression
The PRAXIS II test scores for each analyses were conducted to identify factors
candidate were obtained from ETS. For each that could predict PLT and AgC scores of
candidate, there was a single overall the pre-service teachers.
score for AgC and PLT. Scores for Before step-wise regression was
individual test categories were not available. conducted, intercorrelations were computed
The AgC test categories included social and among all dependent and independent
historical perspectives of agriculture; variables. Independent variables that were
plant and soil science; animal science; significantly correlated with PLT scores and
agricultural mechanization and AgC scores were included in the step-wise
technology; agricultural business and analyses. The decision to include only
economics; natural resources and variables with significant correlations was
environment; and program planning and based on the theory by Ferguson (1971),
management (ETS, 2005a). The PLT test which states that having a significant
categories included students as learners, correlation between two variables implies
instruction and assessment, teacher that predicting one from the other is
professionalism, and communication possible, and it is better than a random
techniques (ETS, 2002). guess.
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Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
Leaving out variables with non- pre-service teachers were male. Thirty-six
significant correlations also helped reduce percent (n = 18) of the pre-service teachers
the risk of collinearity in the regression entered the university straight from high
model. Cohen, Cohen, West, and Aiken school. Only 12% (n = 6) of the pre-service
(2003) warned that in situations of small teachers had a second major. Three of them
sample size, the risk of collinearity could be double majored in animal science, one in
reduced by minimizing the number of agronomy, and two in other majors. Twenty-
independent variables. Berry and Feldman two percent (n = 11) of pre-service teachers
(1985) stated that “one must avoid had a minor. Five of them had a minor in
regression analysis when the number of agronomy, one had a minor in animal
independent variables is greater or equal to science, one minored in agricultural
the number of cases in the sample; as such business, two students minored in
situations necessarily lead to perfect horticulture, and the other two took subjects
collinearity” (p. 38). In the present study, in other colleges. Table 2 shows that the
there were 50 cases. By leaving out mean age for the pre-service teachers
independent variables with non-significant involved in the study was 23.1 years (SD =
correlations, it was ensured that the case to 3.96). The mean ACT score for the pre-
independent variable ratio remained high, service teachers was 22.9 (SD = 2.88). The
thus reducing the risk of collinearity. To highest ACT score was 30, and the lowest
further ensure that the regression analysis was 19. The mean number of transfer credits
was at no risk of collinearity, the was 23.0 (SD = 29.18). The number of
intercorrelation coefficients were examined transfer credits ranged from 0 to 118. The
to find out whether there were any perfect or mean GPA for agriculture coursework was
near perfect correlations between any pair of 3.00 (SD = .50), and the mean GPA for
independent variables. Any such correlation professional education coursework was 3.63
would pose a problem of collinearity in the (SD = .22). The average AgC score for the
regression model (Berry & Feldman). Praxis II examination was 578.8 (SD =
64.70). Scores ranged from 450 to 720. The
Results PLT scores ranged from 134 to 183 with a
mean of 168.4 (SD = 9.42).
Table 1 shows that 46% (n = 23) of the

Table 1
Frequencies for Selected Demographic and Academic Variables
Variable f %
Gender
Male 23 46.0
Female 27 54.0

Type of matriculation
Straight from high school 18 36.0
Transfer student 32 64.0

Double major
Yes 6 12.0
No 44 88.0

Minor
Yes 11 22.0
No 39 78.0
Journal of Agricultural Education 103 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008
Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
Table 2
Means and Standard Deviations for Selected Demographic and Academic Variables
Variables n M SD Min Max
Age at graduation 50 23.10 3.96 21.00 49.00
ACT score 47 22.90 2.88 19.00 30.00
Transfer credits 50 23.00 29.18 0.00 118.00
Agriculture GPA 50 3.00 0.50 2.17 4.00
Professional ed. GPA 50 3.63 0.22 3.23 4.00
Ag. content score 50 578.80 64.70 450.00 720.00
PLT score 50 168.40 9.42 134.00 183.00

The intercorrelations (Table 3) show that analysis. Agriculture content score was
collinearity was not a problem. None of the significantly correlated with Agriculture
correlation coefficients were very high or GPA, r = .30; gender, r = -.45; ACT score,
pb
perfect (Davis, 1971). Correlations between r = .46; and transfer credits (TCr), r = -.31
PLT scores and the independent variables (Table 3). Agriculture GPA, gender, ACT
revealed that PLT scores were significantly score, and transfer credits were therefore
correlated with professional education GPA included in the step-wise regression
(EGPA), r = .56; Agriculture GPA (AGPA), analysis. The correlation between PLT and
r = .51; and ACT score, r = .29 (Table 3). AgC, though significant (r = .40), was
Professional education GPA, Agriculture ignored because the two variables involved
GPA, and ACT score were therefore are the main dependent variables of the
included in the step-wise regression study.

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Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
Table 3
Intercorrelations Among Dependent and Independent Variables
AGPA EGPA Age Gen ACT TSt TCr Maj Min AgC PLT
AGPA 1.00
EGPA .69* 1.00
Age -.01 -.22 1.00
Gen -.05 .16 -.16 1.00
ACT .16 .18 .23 -.02 1.00
TSt. -.07 -.23 -.16 -.02 -.43* 1.00
TCr .02 -.12 -.04 .01 -.40* .59* 1.00
Maj -.16 -.18 .48* .09 .19 -.24 -.26 1.00
Min .14 -.04 -.05 -.09 -.13 00 -.09 -.05 1.00
AgC .30* .18 .10 -.45* .46* -.27 -.31* .03 -.17 1.00
PLT .51* .56* -.17 .20 .29* -.27 -.24 .08 .05 .40 1.00
Note. AGPA = Agriculture GPA, EGPA = professional education GPA, Age = age at graduation,
Gen = gender, ACT = ACT score, TSt = transfer status, TCr = transfer credits Maj = double
major, Min = college minor, AgC = Agriculture content score, PLT = principles of learning and
teaching score.
Gender, 0 = male, 1 = female; Double major, 0 = no, 1 = yes; Minor, 0 = no, 1 = yes;
Transfer status, 0 = freshman, 1 = transfer student.
* p < .05

A step-wise regression analysis was variability in PLT scores. EGPA accounted
conducted to identify a subset of for 28.7% (p = < .001) of the variability in
independent variables that could be used to PLT scores. ACT scores and gender made
predict PLT and AgC scores of the pre- significant, unique contributions to the
service teachers. The step-wise procedure variability in AgC scores. ACT scores
automatically selects independent variables uniquely accounted for 21.4% ( p = .001)
to include in the regression model based on and gender uniquely accounted for
the variable’s individual contribution to the 18.9% ( p = .001) of the variability.
variability in the dependent variable (Cohen The two variables collectively accounted
et al., 2003). for a significant proportion (R2 = .403,
Table 4 shows that EGPA made a p = .001) of the variability in AgC
significant, unique contribution to the scores.

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Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
Table 4
Step-wise Regression of PLT and AgC Scores on Selected Independent Variables
Variables R2 R2 Change Significance
PLT Scores
EGPA .287 .287 <.001
AgC scores
ACT score .214 .214 .001
Gender .403 .189 .001

Conclusions/Implications encouraged to pursue different
occupational opportunities. Additionally,
EGPA explained a significant proportion parents may view agriculture and science
(28.7%) of variability in PLT scores. It is careers as not suited for females (George,
plausible to conclude that EGPA could 2000).
substitute for the PLT requirement when Agriculture coursework requirements at
considering pre-service teachers for initial ISU and the agriculture content tests of the
teaching license. However, caution should PRAXIS II examination did not provide
be exercised because still 71.3% of the equal emphasis on the academic domains of
variability in PLT scores was not explained, Agricultural Science (ISU, 2005; ETS,
an outcome that raises questions about PLT 2005a). The agriculture coursework content
test. Does the test cover appropriate required at least six credits of agronomy,
professional education content? Is the test an seven credits of animal science, and 12
accurate reflection of what teachers should credits farm business and accounting, while
know in professional education? If so, do the agricultural mechanics and horticulture
secondary education core requirements at requirements could be satisfied with three
ISU cover appropriate professional credits each (ISU). The PRAXIS II
education content? Is the content effectively examination gave each of the agriculture
delivered? content domains relatively equal emphasis.
ACT scores and gender collectively and The test had 15 – 17% from each of the
individually explained significant following areas; plant and soil science,
proportions of the variability in AgC scores. animal science, agricultural mechanization
Gender explained 18.9% of the variability in and technology, agricultural business and
AgC. The correlation between gender and economics, and program planning and
AgC scores indicated that males scored management. Also, 9-11% of the
higher than females on the AgC test. This examination focused on social and historical
result was surprising and needs to be studied perspectives of agriculture and natural
further. Perhaps it was due to the different resources and environment.
ways males and females were socialized. The disparity between Agriculture
The differential socialization of males and content in the course work and the PRAXIS
females perpetuates the stereotype that II Agriculture content test might imply that
agriculture and science are male agricultural education pre-service teachers at
domains (Sutphin & Newson-Stewart, the ISU were likely to have learned less
1995). Males might enroll in horticulture and agricultural mechanization
agricultural science and work hard at it due content through their college courses (ISU),
to social pressure, while females are yet the PRAXIS II examination gave
Journal of Agricultural Education 106 Volume 49, Number 1, 2008
Thobega & Miller Predicting Scores of Beginning…
horticulture and agricultural mechanization teaching. Thus, future research
the same weight in the AgC test. Therefore, should establish the relationship
the discrepancy between males’ and between teachers’ performance on
females’ performance on the AgC test might PRAXIS II tests and PRAXIS III
be related to the fact that the pre-service assessments.
agriculture coursework curriculum was not
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