ERIC EJ838743: Historical Identity Development Patterns and Contemporary Multicultural Identity in First, Second and Third Generation Counseling Students

2009·0.5 MB·English

by  ERIC

PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 20
Historical Identity Development Patterns and Contemporary
Multicultural Identity in First, Second, and Third Generation Counseling
Students
By Nola Butler Byrd, San Diego State University
ABSTRACT
This study examines the historical and contemporary identity development patterns of
first, second, and third generation students to determine the attributes students bring
with them and how they develop through their experiences in a multicultural counselor
training program. The paper examines patterns between groups, followed by a discus-
sion of implications and recommendations for multicultural counseling and education.
Studies have found that prior multicul- have been challenged by scholars and scholars have explored the significance
tural training and the race or ethnicity of the activists calling for the inclusion of im- of individual identities. In recent years,
counselor can be predictive of counselor’s migrant perspectives and linguistic di- however, scholars have expanded this
self-assessed abilities to work with cultur- versity in order to end the oppression to include multiple identities, in part
ally diverse clients. Counselors of color in of immigrants. The majority of studies because the social movements of the
many of these studies have reported greater and preparation programs in the fields 1950s and 60s exposed a range of iden-
levels of multicultural counseling com- of education, counseling and psychol- tities and experiences that had been
petence versus their European American ogy have tended to focus on English- concealed by the dominant European
counterparts, and higher levels of multicul- speaking clients and practitioners born American postwar culture. This shift
tural preparation have been associated with and raised in the U.S. and not those on was also influenced by the work of Zinn
greater self-assessed multicultural counsel- with linguistic diversity or immigration (1980), Takaki (1993, 1998), among
ing competence (Constantine, 2001; Con- status. others who reframed the history of the
stantine, Juby, and Liang, 2001; Neville The utility of the Multicultural Ex- U.S. based on interviews with diverse
et al., 1996; Ottavi, Pope-Davis, and perience Inventory (MEI) as an out- ethnic and immigrant groups. Evi-
Dings, 1994; Pope-Davis, Reynolds, come measure was examined in this dence revealed blatant and subtle dis-
Dings, and Nielson, 1995; Pope-Davis, study of first, second and third or more crimination and oppression of people
Reynolds, Dings, and Ottavi, 1994; generation students in the (CBB Pro- in the U.S. based on class, race, gender,
Sodowsky, Kuo-Jackson, Richardson, gram). This study assessed historical immigration status and other diverse
and Corey, 1998; Sodowsky, Taffe, and contemporary multicultural devel- identities. It exposed the complexities
Gutkin, and Wise, 1994). However, little opment patterns prior to their matricu- and intersectionalities of the identities
is known, about the determinants of multi- lation in the CBB program to determine of many people previously overlooked
cultural identity among students based on what participants brought with them in by scholars. Such revelations demand
their generational background in the United terms of their multicultural experienc- the services of competent multicultural
States (U.S.). es and identity. It also contrasted their counselors who can work successfully
For many years, practitioners in entry and exit scores on a measure of with individuals and communities with
the fields of education and psychology multicultural attitudes and behaviors diverse, multiple identities.
responded to this need by developing to assess the affects of the preparation Trends in multiple identity devel-
multicultural education opportunities program on a student’s behaviors and opment address the complexity of hu-
and researching multicultural aware- attitudes. The data used in this study man identity. These theories represent
ness and identity development in or- was collected by the author, who was human identity as multifaceted, yet
der to prepare competent multicultural also a faculty member in the program, integrated. Each identity is a frame of
professionals. The field of counseling as part of a longitudinal study (2003- reference that includes an array of so-
psychology was the first to develop a 2006) of the CBB program. cial and cultural identities, gendered
set of multicultural counseling compe- and sexual identities, and other identi-
tencies (Sue, Arredondo, and McDavid, MULTICULTURAL IDENTITY ties based on beliefs, national and local
1992). Recently, the conceptualiza- alliances, socio-economic status, lan-
DEVELOPMENT TRENDS
tions of multicultural counselors’ and guage, generation, etc. (Barvosa-Cart-
educators’ regarding multiculturalism Traditionally, identity development er, 1998; Gutierrez Keeton, R., 2002).
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 21
Within this field, scholars have ex- does not arise from a developmen- areas is determined by their ability to
amined the characteristics that individ- tal process resulting in a separate identify with the school and its sub-
uals need in order to develop healthy unit that when united with many domains. Their ability to identify is
identities. Erickson (1987) theorized others makes up a group, society, or influenced by societal pressures such
that healthy identity development oc- community. Rather, the identity of as gender roles and economic disad-
curs when people are provided psycho- an individual is found in a moral re- vantage. In schools where students “at
social time and space and the freedom lationship with others which, when promise” identify with the domain of
to experiment with different social roles in aggregate form, makes up more schooling, there is the additional bar-
before making long term commitments than the sum of the membership. rier of stereotype threat, which Steele
to a chosen occupation, to intimate re- A full and mature sense of self does (2002) defines as “the threat that oth-
lationships, social and political groups not stem from a developmental ers’ judgments or their own actions will
and ideas, and to a philosophy of life. process grounded in individualism negatively stereotype them in the do-
Gurin, Dey, Hurtado, and Gurin (2002) but instead arises from a recogni- main” (p. 336).
added that psychosocial moratoriums of tion that in one’s relationship with This research shows that it is not
this nature should include exposure to others there resides the possibil- enough for counselors to understand
diverse, complex interactions or people ity of seeing and understanding the traditional identity scholarship. In our
may passively make life decisions and world, and therefore one’s self, dif- multicultural society, competent cul-
commitments based solely on their lim- ferently. When I change, the rest of turally responsive counselors must be
ited past experiences. This would sup- the world changes. (p. 7) aware of their own multiple identities,
port decision-making informed by new, as well as those of their clients in order
broader, and more complex perspec- Borderization includes the physical to foster transformative, socially just
tives and relationships, which has been boundary between the U.S., Mexico, relationships with themselves, their
supported by research on multiethnic Canada and other countries or territo- clients and the community.
juries (Sommers, 2006). As members ries occupied by the U.S. It includes a
of racially homogeneous or heteroge- pedagogy that creates new knowledge METHODOLOGY
neous mock juries, European American that addresses social justice issues.
This study used the Multicultural Ex-
participants deliberated on the trial of Borders are “sites of interlinguistic en-
perience Inventory (MEI) (Ramirez, 1998)
an African American defendant. Half gagement and liminal identities where
as the primary instrument to examine the
of the groups were exposed to pretrial many realities come together” (Estrada
experiences of first- and second-gener-
jury selection questions about racism. and McLaren, 1993). As borders widen,
ation immigrant students contrasted
Analyses of these deliberations sup- they create cultural instability where
with students who have been in the U.S.
ported Sommer’s hypothesis that di- cultures collide creatively or destruc-
for three or more generations and ad-
verse groups exchange a wider range of tively. People with bicultural/multi-
dresses the following questions: What
information than all-European Ameri- cultural identities, such as immigrants,
do first, second, and third or more gen-
can juries. European Americans in this have extensive socialization and life ex-
eration students bring with them into
study also cited more case facts, made periences in two or more cultures and
multicultural education programs in
fewer errors, and were more open to participate actively in these cultures.
terms of multicultural awareness and
discussion of racism when in diverse This is reflected by their behaviors and
identity? Do historical identity patterns
versus homogeneous European Ameri- lived experiences with extensive and
vary substantially among first, second and
can groups. Even before deliberations, intimate interactions with people from
third or more generation students in this
European Americans in diverse groups other cultures (Ramirez, 1998). Com-
counselor preparation program? How did
who were exposed to blatant racial is- petent bicultural/multicultural people
the CBB counselor preparation pro-
sues in pre-trial questionnaires showed have the potential to change Ameri-
gram affect first, second and third or
more tolerance and mercy toward the can society and their development and
more generation students’ multicultur-
African American defendant, demon- contributions will have an impact on
al awareness and identity? This study
strating that the effects of diversity do counseling and education practices in
used both qualitative and quantitative mea-
not occur solely through information all of the countries and communities in
sures to address the research questions.
exchange (Sommers, 2006). which they are involved (Calderon and
Other scholars advocate a more Carreon, 2000).
Overview of the CBB Program’s
critical, hermeneutic orientation in However, Steele’s (1992, 2002)
identity development through analysis stereotype threat theory and its rela- Multicultural Education Model
of multiple identities (Herda, 1999), tionship to domain identification the- The 35-year-old Community-Based
transcultural identities (Huffman, ory also pose important factors that Block CBB Program is located in a
2001), and liminal identities stem- can promote or impede the resilience large urban southwestern city on the
ming from the “borderization” of the of multicultural people. Stereotype U.S. border. The demographics are
U.S. Herda (1999) argues that identity threat theory asserts that the academic reflective of a highly diverse popula-
development is a community process: achievement of students-at-promise tion in the U.S., including a growing
(…) the identity of an individual and women in advanced quantitative
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 22
Latino population. CBB’s mission is to ogy has been corroborated in research path of development of multicultural
prepare multicultural counselors com- about racially diverse group decision- orientations to life using 22 qualita-
mitted to working with marginalized making performance contributing to tive, fill-in-the-blank items. It also as-
individuals and communities. Many of positive cognitive effects. This includes sessed their HDP and Contemporary
the students attracted to the program more thorough information processing Multicultural Identity (CMI), including
come from low-income communities and accuracy than homogeneous Euro- attitudes towards dominant and non-
and are the first in their families to ma- pean American group decision-making dominant cultures and ability to func-
triculate in graduate school or college. because of the diverse perspectives tion and move between dominant and
CBB attracts more than three times the People of Color contribute, and because non-dominant cultural groups using 26
number of students it can accept, which European Americans exhibited better Likert-type items for People of Color,
makes it highly competitive. comprehension in groups with ethni- and 23 items for European Americans.
The program operates in an affec- cally diverse people (Sommers, 2006; These items are divided into two types:
tive experiential learning environment Sommers, Warp and Mahoney, 2008). A and B. The instrument was pilot-test-
(Kolb, 1984), with a critical theoreti- High percentages of the over 800 ed, reviewed by external consultants
cal approach (Freire, 1972) designed to CBB alumni have been accepted into and revised three times. Ramirez’ scor-
help learners look deeply within, with- further graduate training and doctoral ing methods are described below.
out and beyond the self to find new ways programs. Typically, some 40% to 50% Type A items are scored so that
of seeing, knowing and being in multi- of each year’s graduates go on to receiv- People of Color who respond, “1 = al-
cultural contexts. Through CBB’s dem- ing school counseling and school psy- most entirely my ethnic group” or “5 =
ocratic partners-in-learning philoso- chology credentials or MFT licensure almost entirely Whites” or European
phy, students are empowered to take preparation. Approximately one third Americans who respond, “1 = almost
ownership of their own learning while of alumni ultimately earn doctoral de- entirely my ethnic group or “5 = almost
they engage experientially in their own, grees. Longitudinal outcomes studies entirely People of Color” receive one
and their colleagues’, personal experi- (Nieto and Senour, 2005; Robinson- point; People of Color who respond “2
ences of oppression, privilege, and per- Zanartu et al., 2004), demonstrate that = mostly my ethnic group with a few
sonal growth issues. As part of this ex- CBB graduates often emerge in leader- People of Color from other groups” or
periential process, students apply their ship positions; alumni include a college “4 = mostly Whites with a few People
learning in their work with clients and presidency, deanships, presidency of a of Color” or European Americans who
in the learning community. Knowledge faculty union and several in elected of- respond, “2 = mostly my ethnic group
and learning that occurs in affective fice. One group of alumni designed and with a few People of Color”, or “4 =
experiential environments emphasizes operated an urban Afro-centric charter mostly People of Color with a few peo-
the experience of what it is actually like school. Results of employer surveys ple of my ethnic group” receive two
to be a counseling professional/change demonstrate high employer satisfac- points; People of Color who respond,
agent. In this environment, informa- tion with graduates’ counseling and “3 = mixed (Whites, my ethnic group
tion discussed and generated is most professional skills, sensitivity to issues and People of Color about equally)” or
often current and immediate, and de- of diversity, advocacy for social justice European Americans who respond, “3
rived from learners’ feelings, values, issues, and leadership (Senour, 1998). = mixed (my ethnic group and People
and opinions expressed in dialogues of Color, about equally) receive three
with peers or faculty. The program’s Participants points. Higher scores signify a greater
culturally diverse faculty serve as role degree of multiculturalism.
Ninety-six CBB students partici-
models for the counseling, social jus- Type B Likert-type items are scored
pated in the study. Demographic data
tice, and/or multicultural education so that a response of “Extensively” or
about this sample population are pre-
profession, relating to learners more Frequently” is assigned two points.
sented in Table 1 by number of genera-
often as colleagues than as authority All other responses are assigned one
tions in the U.S. for the following char-
figures. Learner assessment is most of- point. Items 1-8 are HDP items and
acteristics: age, ethnicity, languages,
ten presented in the form of feedback items 9-26 are CMI items. A total Mul-
gender and sexual orientation, and
that is personalized with regard to each ticultural score is obtained by summing
number of years in the U.S. Students
individual’s needs and goals (Kolb, HDP and CMI scores.
enrolled in the CBB program agreed to
1984). Finally, the MEI assesses partici-
participate in this study and were assessed
This approach builds on existing lit- pants’ entry and exit degrees of com-
prior to matriculation, and at the end of the
erature examining needs, conditions, fort, acceptance and identification with
nine-month program.
and strategies for incorporating multi- different ethnic, sexual orientation,

cultural competence and social justice physical disabilities and other groups
Multicultural Experience Inventory
content into counselor preparation cur- specified by the participant using Lik-
ricula. It attempts to meet the challeng- The Multicultural Experience In- ert scaled items from 1 = Very Comfort-
es that many educators have identified ventory (MEI) was designed by Ramir- able to 5 = Very Uncomfortable.
in teaching about diversity and social ez (1998) to assess participants’ His- The Historical Development Pattern
justice. The validity of this methodol- torical Development Pattern (HDP) or scale reveals five potential patterns or
P ERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 23
Table 1
2003-2006 Learning Community Demographics by Generations in the U.S.

Generation 1st 2nd 3 or more Total
n (%) n (%) n (%) N (%)
Characteristic
Age
21-25 10 (41.7%) 10 (47.6%) 16 (28.6%) 36 (37%)
26-35 10 (41.7%) 10 (47.6%) 34 (60.7%) 51 (53%)
36-45 2 (8.3%) 6 (10.7%) 7 (7%)
46-55 2 (8.3%) 1 (4.8%) 3 (3%)
Total 24 (100%) 21 (100%) 56 (100%) 96 (100%)
Ethnicity/Race
Latino/a & Hispanic 10 (41.7%) 10 (47.6%) 10 (17.9%) 29 (30%)
African American 1 (4.8%) 16 (28.6%) 18 (19%)
Asian/Pacific Islander 4 (16.7%) 2 (9.5%) 2 (3.6%) 8 (8%)
Euroamerican/White/Anglo 2 (8.3%) 2 (9.5%) 11 (19.6%) 14 (14%)
Multiracial 3 (12.5%) 6 (28.6%) 15 (26.8%) 23 (24%)
Other 5 (20.8%) 2 (3.6%) 5 (5%)
Total 24 (100%) 21 (100%) 56 (100%) 96 (100%)
Languages
Bilingual 18 (75%) 12 (57.1%) 18 (32.1%) 46 (45%)
Multilingual 5 (20.8%) 1 (4.8%) 5 (8.9%) 9 (9%)
English Only 1 (4.2%) 7 (33.4%) 32 (57.1%) 39 (40%)
Total 24 (100%) 21 (100%) 56 (100%) 94 (100%)
Missing 1 (1.8%) 2 (2%)
paths of development toward a multi- score = 12-22)—indicates ex- first two or three periods of life,
cultural orientation to life, with several tensive, almost total exposure followed by sudden immersion
variations: to a non-dominant culture into dominant culture.
a) Parallel Pattern (High score = throughout most life periods d) Early Dominant/Gradual Non-
23-33)—indicates extensive, with gradually increasing expo- dominant Pattern (Low score
continuous parallel exposure sure to dominant culture with = 1-11)—indicates extensive, al-
to non-dominant and domi- increasing age. most total exposure to dominant
nant cultures beginning during c) Early Non-dominant/Abrupt culture throughout most life pe-
preschool and for a least two or Dominant Pattern (Medium riods with gradually increasing
more life periods. score = 12-22)—indicates ex- exposure to non-dominant cul-
b) Early Non-dominant/Gradual tensive, almost total exposure ture with increasing age.
Dominant Pattern (Medium to non-dominant cultures in the e) Early Dominant/Abrupt Non-
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 24
dominant Pattern indicates c) Functional Bicultural/Non- mainstream European American neigh-
(Low score = 1-11)—indicates dominant Orientation (Medium borhoods in the U.S. The HDP scores
extensive, almost total expo- score = 19-36)—individuals for these students ranged from 13-28,
sure to dominant culture in the with this orientation function placing some in the outer extremes of
first two or three periods of life competently in both non-dom- segregation in their ethnic group, or as
followed by sudden immersion inant and dominant cultures, the only one of their ethnic group in the
into non-dominant culture. but are more comfortable and European American neighborhoods in
self-assured in their non-dom- which they grew up, with few People of
The CMI scale assesses the dynam- inant culture. They express a Color. One student, Cessair, an Arme-
ics of identity formation according greater commitment to the non- nian-Azerbaijani-American, describes
to the following criteria: functional- dominant culture through their her experiences:
ism, commitment, and transcendence. philosophy of life and life goals.
Functionalism indicates an individual’s d) Mono-cultural (Low score = I was happy to finally be able to come
ability to move between two cultures 1-18)—individuals with this ori- to the U.S. From the age of sixteen,
without making corresponding changes entation function competently almost every night I prayed to God
to his/her first cultural identity. Degree and are more comfortable and to help my family to get to the U.S.
of Commitment to the cultural groups self-assured in their culture of where we all can live together again
to which an individual participates in- origin to the exclusion of other since eventually my grandmother
dicates level of emotional and time in- cultures (Ramirez, 1998). and mother had fled to a neighbor
vestment, including their willingness republic for a while. We knew that
to work toward the improvement of the RESULTS only the U.S. could give us an op-
culture and well-being of group mem- portunity to unite us and become
bers. An individual with high commit- a family again. My prayers were
Historical Development Patterns and
ment plays the role of cultural ambas- heard after four years when my fa-
sador and mediator through her/his Contemporary Multicultural Identities ther won a Green Card, through the
commitment to improve relationships These results address research lottery, and by luck he was allowed
and understanding among the several questions one and two: What do first, to immigrate to the United States
groups in which she/he participates. second, and third or more generation with his wife and all children under
Transcendence refers to the dynam- students bring with them into multi- twenty-one. By that time, my sister
ics of identity formation and indicates cultural education programs in terms and brother were above twenty-one,
an individual’s ability to be part of and of multicultural awareness and identi- so it was the best and the worst news
stand apart from the different groups ty? And, Do historical identity patterns for our family. I had to separate
in which she/he participates. The CMIs vary substantially among first, second [from them] again, and I did not
are classified as follows: and third or more generation students know when I would have a chance
a) Synthesized Multicultural in this counselor preparation program? to see them again. I will never forget
(High score = 27-54)—individu- First generation students. The how I was holding up in the airport
als with this orientation demon- HDP of the majority of the first gen- [trying] not to cry, and even on the
strate positive attitudes toward eration students was in the medium plane I was crying silently so that I
several cultures and competent range, Early Almost Entirely their Eth- would not [attract] the flight atten-
functioning in more than one nic Group/Gradual Mainstream, with dant’s attention. I was not safe, and
culture. These individual feel a mean of 20.14 (4.26). These students I knew I would not be until I could
accepted by members of more experienced extensive, almost total step on American land.
than one culture and are com- exposure to the culture of their ethnic
mitted to more than one cul- group during their early life periods, (…) I immigrated here when I was
ture. with gradually increasing exposure to twenty, but I felt like I was fifteen.
b) Functional Bicultural/Domi- dominant European American culture My life experiences, my first job,
nant Orientation (Medium with their increasing age. The ethnic and my first relationship started in
score = 19-36)—individuals with composition of the neighborhoods they the United States (…) I hope that
this orientation function com- lived in before and during elementary my future children would have a
petently in both non-dominant school was almost entirely their ethnic homeland; hopefully, it would not
and dominant cultures, but are group (2.25 [1.49]). As they progressed dishonor them because of who they
more comfortable and self-as- into middle and high school, their are and who their parents are.
sured in the dominant culture. neighborhoods became mostly Euro-
They exhibit a greater commit- pean American with a few People of The mean CMI score of these first
ment to the dominant culture, Color (3.07 [1.44]). This reflects their generation students was 37.27 (6.22).
which is expressed through transition from their native country This score placed them in the category
their philosophy of life and life or segregated ethnic neighborhood to of synthesized multiculturals who ex-
goals. press positive attitudes toward several
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 25
cultures, function competently in more me. My mom’s hard work, her sac- nic Group/Gradual Mainstream 14.32
than one culture, feel accepted by mem- rifices, my sacrifices, determination (3.66), though their scores were lower
bers of more than one culture, and are and motivation allowed me to reach than first or second-generation stu-
committed to more than one culture my educational goals. In 1999, with dents. They, too, experienced extensive,
as expressed through their beliefs and much support and patience from almost total exposure to the culture of
goals in life. Their scores ranged from my family and friends, I became the their ethnic group during their early life
25-45, the CMI medium to high range. first person in my family to receive periods, with gradually increasing ex-
First generation students with lower a bachelor’s degree, and in doing so; posure to dominant culture with their
scores in this category fell into the me- I became responsible to my friends, increasing age. The majority of these
dium range as functional multiculturals, family and community. Academic students indicated that the ethnic com-
with either a mainstream or ethno-cen- achievement at San Diego State Uni- position of the neighborhoods in which
tric orientation. Similar to synthesized versity proved to be very challeng- they lived before going to school were
multiculturals, functional multicultur- ing. I was faced with all the issues almost entirely their ethnic group 2.80
als function competently in both eth- that non-traditional students face in (1.47) and grew progressively more di-
no-centric and mainstream cultures. seeking a higher education and as I verse through elementary, middle and
Still, they may be more comfortable learned the ropes of academic and high school 3.15 (1.46). The HDP scores
and self-assured in either mainstream social survival, I shared them with for these students ranged from 9-22,
or ethno-centric cultures, not both, and other underrepresented students by which were lower than first or second
demonstrate a commitment to either becoming a peer advisor for the Stu- generation students, placing some in
of those cultures as expressed through dent Affirmative Action office. As a the outer extremes of segregation in
their philosophy of life and life goals. peer advisor, I was able to introduce their ethnic group or being the only one
Second generation students. other students to the social, cul- of their ethnic group in the neighbor-
The HDP of the majority of the second tural and educational resources on hoods in which that they grew up, with
generation students were also Early campus. I also helped them explore few People of Color. Martin, an African
Almost Entirely their Ethnic Group/ student life, discussed academic dif- American male described his experi-
Gradual Mainstream 20.24 (4.53), in- ficulties with them, and encouraged ences:
dicating extensive and almost total community involvement. Being able
exposure to the culture of their ethnic to share my experience with others Living in poverty makes the world
group during their early life periods, and witnessing them benefit from it look and rotate on a separate axis.
with gradually increasing exposure to was very rewarding for me. The ghetto causes its people to
dominant culture with their increas- form a sub-culture. A culture where
ing age. Like the first generation stu- The majority of second generation what’s important in the normal
dents, the majority of second genera- students scored as CMI synthesized world means nothing, but what’s
tion students indicated that the ethnic multiculturals with a mean score of important in the neighborhood
composition of the neighborhoods in 36.29 (5.30), expressing positive at- meant everything. Going to college
which they lived before going to school titudes toward several cultures; com- and doing something positive with
were almost entirely their ethnic group petent functioning in more than one your life was looked down upon.
2.24 (1.46), then their neighborhoods culture, feeling accepted by members What was prevalent in my neigh-
were progressively more diverse when of more than one culture, committed borhood was selling drugs, gang
they attended elementary through high to more than one culture as expressed banging, acquiring clothes, jew-
school 2.79 (1.13). The HDP scores through their philosophy of life and life elry, cars and respect. I was unique
for these students ranged from 10-27, goals. Scores ranged from 24-43, the though. I say this because I had dif-
placing some of them in the outer ex- CMI medium to high range. The me- ferent dreams and aspirations than
tremes of segregation in their ethnic dium range describes functional mul- most of my friends. In elementary
group or being the only one of their ticulturals with either a mainstream or school, I can remember that I was
ethnic group in the neighborhoods in ethno-centric orientation. These indi- the only one in my neighborhood
which that they grew up, with few Peo- viduals function competently in both who was in the school orchestra, as
ple of Color. A Latina/Pilipina Ameri- ethno-centric and mainstream cultures. well as being the school’s president.
can student describes her experiences: Yet, they may be more comfortable and I caught a lot of flack, but neverthe-
self-assured in either mainstream or less I was class vice president in 5th
Having grown up in an impover- ethno-centric cultures, not both, and grade, president in 6th, and learned
ished community in Southeast San demonstrate a commitment to either how to play two instruments: clari-
Diego, I witnessed many of my of those cultures as expressed through net and saxophone. In junior high I
childhood friends and neighbors their philosophy of life and life goals. joined the band. My friends would
become single parents, gang mem- Three or more generation stu- laugh at my band uniform and when
bers, drug addicts, dropouts, many dents. The HDP of the majority of the I marched in parades. They use to
were victims of violence and death. three or more generation students were call me an L7, which meant that
Statistically, the odds were against also Early Almost Entirely their Eth- I was a square (conformist). I be-
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 26
Table 2
Historical Development Patterns and Contemporary Multicultural Identities by Number of
Generations in the U.S.
1st Generation 2nd Generation 3 or More Generations
n = 15 n = 21 n = 37
Mean (Standard Deviation)

I. Historical Development Pattern
High = 23-33
Parallel
Medium = 12-22 19.67 (4.50) 20.24 (4.53) 14.32 (3.66)
Early Nondominant/
Gradual Dominant
Early Dominant/
Gradual Nondominant
Low = 1-11
Early Nondominant/
Abrupt Dominant
Early Dominant/
Abrupt Nondominant
Mean (Standard Deviation)
Score Range 13-28 10-27 9-22

II. Contemporary Multicultural Identity
High = 27-54
Synthesized Multicultural 37.27 (6.22) 36.29 (5.30) 37.03 (4.79)
Medium = 19-36
Functional Bicultural/
Dominant Orientation
Functional Bicultural/
Nondominant Orientation
Low = 1-18
Monocultural
Mean (Standard Deviation)
Score Range 25-45 24-43 27-44

III. Total Multicultural Score
High = 59-87 56.93 (9.44) 56.52(8.13) 51.35 (6.73)
Medium = 30-58
Low = 1-29
Mean (Standard Deviation)
Score Range 39-70 36-69 38-65

lieve from this point on, I began to switch the boundaries around. They attend school where we were sup-
hide the not so cool stuff from my started busing kids from our neigh- pose to go. All of them except me!
friends. If I wanted to do something borhood to schools, which were pre- My father had my brother and I go
that no one else would do, I would dominantly White. Almost all of my to the new school, because a friend
sneak and do it. This caused me friends were Black and Hispanic. of the family worked there. Here is
to struggle with self-acceptance... They refused to go to the new school, was a different world. It was only
The high school district decided to so they would catch the city bus and 31 Black males attending the school
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 27
and I could hardly identify with the Catching Multicultural Awareness (2.73 vs. 2.98, t(67) = 3.42, p= .001,
rest of the students. My neighbor- two-tailed), and Identification (3.80
in Counselor Preparation: Comfort,
hood was mainly Afro-American vs. 4.12, t(67) = 3.46, p= .001, two-
and Mexican, with a few Caucasian. Acceptance, and Identification with tailed). Overall, by the end of the coun-
I had to adapt to a dissimilar world. selor preparation program, the group
Other Ethnicities
indicated that they felt slightly less
These results describe the analyses
The majority of these students comfort, acceptance and identification
of the MEI that address research ques-
scored as CMI synthesized multicultur- with other ethnic groups than they had
tion three: How did the CBB counselor
als, with a mean score of 37.03 (4.79), when they began the program. Their
preparation program effect first, second
expressing positive attitudes toward scores were in the medium range 2.72
and third or more generation students’
several cultures; functioning compe- to 3.70 (sometimes accepted, comfort-
multicultural awareness and identity?
tently in more than one culture, feel- able or identified; sometimes not).
On the entry/exit t-tests of measures
ing accepted by members of more than First generation students. First
of Comfort, Acceptance and Identifica-
one culture, committing to more than Generation participants’ only statis-
tion with Different Ethnicities (Likert
one culture as expressed through their tically significant category was their
scale: 1 = Very comfortable, accepted or
philosophy of life and life goals. Scores identification with people of other di-
identified, 2 = Somewhat comfortable,
ranged from 27-44, the CMI medium verse groups (3.39 vs. 3.70, t (16) =
accepted, or identified, 3 = Sometimes/
to high range. The medium range de- 1.53, p = .012, two-tailed) indicating
sometimes not comfortable, accepted,
scribes functional multiculturals with that they were sometimes identified/
or identified, 4 = Somewhat uncom-
either a mainstream or ethno-centric sometimes not with other groups.
fortable, unaccepted, or minimally
orientation. These individuals function Their scores on comfort and feelings of
identified, 5 = Very uncomfortable, un-
competently in both ethno-centric and acceptance by other ethnic groups were
accepted, or not at all identified.), all
mainstream cultures; however, they also slightly more negative at the exit of
of the mean scores increased slightly
may be more comfortable and self-as- the program, but were not statistically
across all three groups. This indicates
sured in either mainstream or ethno- significant.
slight decreases in their comfort, ac-
centric cultures; not both and demon- Second generation students.
ceptance and identification with other
strate a commitment to either of those Similar to first generation participants’,
groups. Two of these categories were
cultures as expressed through their second generation students’ identifi-
statistically significant in two-tailed
philosophy of life and life goals. cation with people from other ethnic
comparisons for the combined group
groups was their only statically sig-
of 67 paired participants: Acceptance
nificant category, (3.93 vs. 4.38, t(19)
Table 3
Entry and Exit Comfort, Acceptance and Identification with Other Ethnicities by Number of
Generations in the U.S.
1st Generation 2nd Generation 3+ Generations Total
n = 16 n = 19 n = 33 n = 67
Entry Exit Entry Exit Entry Exit Entry Exit
Mean (Standard Deviation)
IV. Comfort, Acceptance and Identification with Other Ethnic Groups
1. Comfort felt with other ethnic groups
2.63 2.72 2.49 2.55** 2.75 2.78 2.65 2.70
(.57) (.50) (.44) (.50) (.66) (.58) (.56) (.54)
2. Acceptance felt with other ethnic groups
2.62 2.89 2.71 2.84*** 2.82 3.10** 2.74 2.98***
(.64) (.47) (.52) (.51) (.55) (.51) (.56) (.51)
3. Identification felt with other ethnic groups
3.39 3.70** 3.93 4.38* 3.94 4.18*** 3.80 4.12***
(.98) (.74) (1.0) (.81) (.86) (.78) (.94) (.81)

Note. (1 = very positive; 5 = very negative). ***p<.001, **p<.01, * p<.05, (two-tailed, paired t-
test analyses).
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 28
=2.16, p = .045, two-tailed). Their en- of dimensions of multicultural identity not matter. However, as can be seen on the
try and exit scores were slightly higher development for this study. This instru- HDP and CMI measures, there can be some
than first generation students, meaning ment addresses the calls in identity and significant background and identity differ-
that they felt less comfort, acceptance group decision-making scholarship for ences between individuals who evaluate
and identification with diverse groups diverse, complex interactions in order themselves on pre-post measures. A partici-
than first generation students. Their to enhance identity development and pant could be mono-cultural and self-assess
comfort and feelings of acceptance by improve the quality of group decision- themselves on pre-post measures with the
other groups also lessened at the end of making. same score as a synthesized multicultural
the program, but were not statistically Findings in this study show that and it would appear as if there was no dif-
significant. first, second, and third or more generation ference in their scores. Understanding that
Three or more generations. students brought very similar multicultural students in this study are synthesized mul-
Similar to the first and second gen- identity development patterns and identities ticulturals provides a context for their other
eration students, third generation stu- into the CBB program from 2003 to 2006. characteristics and can help counselors and
dents’ identification with people from Historical identity patterns (HDP) var- educators develop more relevant curricula.
other groups proved to be statistically ied minimally among first, second and The pre-post assessments in this
significant (3.94 vs. 4.18, t(31) = 2.20, p third or more generation students in study show decreases in students’ com-
= .035, two-tailed), reflecting minimal this program and placed them in the fort, acceptance and identification with
identification with other groups. How- same Early Almost Entirely their Ethnic people from diverse groups at the end
ever, their degree of acceptance was Group/Gradual Mainstream category of of the CBB program. This finding may
even more statistically significant than multicultural development. These stu- be a sign of a negative program ef-
first or second generation students dents had similar experiences grow- fect. Another possible explanation for
(2.82 vs. 3.10, t (31) = 2.91, p =.007, ing up in ethnic/culturally segregated this finding is that CBB programs and
two-tailed), meaning that they felt less neighborhoods, whether they were processes trigger significant identity
accepted with other groups compared born in another country or in the U.S. disequilibrium in students with high
to first or second generation students. and, as they grew older, they gradually levels of multicultural experience. This
integrated into dominant European has the potential to help them learn to
Limitations American neighborhoods. Third or negotiate disequilibrium, ambiguity
more generation students lived in more and tension in “real life” multicultural
Because this study focused on stu-
segregated neighborhoods longer than contexts, and to help them develop the
dents from one specific counselor
either first or second-generation stu- agency to operationalize the multicul-
preparation program, these findings
dents. This finding may be a reflection tural competencies in these challenging
are specific to that sample group and
of the ongoing segregation of People of contexts. Qualitative data collected as
caution must be exercised in general-
Color in the U.S., especially for those in part of a five-year longitudinal study of
izing these findings to first, second and
lower socioeconomic groups and points the CBB program will be used to inves-
third or more generation students in
to another area of important research tigate this phenomenon. Preliminary
multicultural counselor preparation
and consideration for working with analysis of this data suggests that stu-
programs. Still, these findings provide
students from these backgrounds. dents experience a good deal of tension
important information for educators
The Contemporary Multicultural and ambiguity during the CBB program
and others working with immigrants
Identity (CMI) scores of students in this related to their learning processes and
and other diverse populations.
sample were even closer together than identity development, especially relat-
This investigation is also lim-
their HDP scores and all were in the ed to group decision-making. This may
ited to the extent that the primary re-
category of Synthesized Multiculturals. be similar to some of the negative ef-
searcher was a faculty member in the
Their scores indicate that they are in- fects of diversity found in some studies
program during the time of this study.
dividuals who exhibit positive attitudes of group decision-making, including
Though the researcher attempted to
toward several cultures and are competent increased conflict and decreased mo-
account for her biases and expecta-
functioning in more than one culture. They rale. Other studies on diverse decision-
tions in analyzing the data by using an
feel accepted by members of more than one making and work groups have found
independent auditor and getting feed-
culture and are committed to more than one that these variables weaken or disap-
back directly from participants, it is
culture. Having a clearer understanding of pear over time (De Drue and Weingart,
possible that her perceptions uniquely
the backgrounds and identities of these 2003; Jackson, 1992; Jehn, Northcraft
influenced aspects of the study (e.g.,
students provides a more informed under- and Neale, 1999; O’Reilly, Caldwell and
selection of study instrument), which,
standing of their scores on other measures Barnett, 1989; Watson, Kumar and Mi-
in turn, may have affected the data ob-
of multicultural competence and identity. chaelsen, 1993 as cited in Sommers,
tained.
One of the unfortunate aspects of many Warp, Mahoney, 2008).
pre- post-measures is that there is no un- Previous studies on semester-long
DISCUSSION
derstanding of the backgrounds or identi- intergroup dialogues using processes
The Multicultural Experience In- ties of participants. The assumption is that similar to the CBB program have pro-
ventory (MEI) provided a helpful set these are equal or that the differences do duced findings similar to those of this
PERSPECTIVES ON URBAN EDUCATION SPRING 2009 | PAGE 29
study. Their participants’ self-assessed of multicultural counseling and educa-
levels of multicultural awareness, com- tion to include the experiences of first
mitment to dialogic processes and and second generation students in
building bridges were high in pre-as- graduate-level education. These results
sessments, and then declined on post provide important insights into the de-
assessments. These scholars postulated velopment of multicultural identity and
several alternative explanations for this competence in diverse individuals and
apparent lack of effectiveness, includ- encourage the investigation of histori-
ing: (a) Self-selection bias. Because cal multicultural patterns and contem-
students in their intergroup dialogues porary multicultural identity in exami-
chose to participate, they already had nations of multicultural competence
well-developed attributes related to and identity. Understanding these vari-
the outcomes and they sought out in- ables can help programs and educators
tergroup dialogues to further their in- expand their conceptualization(s) of
terests in learning about racial issues, multiculturalism, better understand
which have impacted their post as- their students and improve their mul-
sessment scores; (b) Differential out- ticultural programming. More research
comes on racial engagement measures needs to be conducted on first and sec-
for Students of Color and European ond generation students, and the roles
Americans. Several scholars have doc- they play in diverse groups in terms of
umented the differential experiences cultural brokering and borderization.
and outcomes for Students of Color in Further research is especially needed
multicultural education interventions to better understand identity develop-
(Gurin et al., 1999, as cited in Nagda ment in dominant and nondominant
and Zuniga, 2003; Solorzano, Ceja people in highly diverse contexts, es-
and Yosso, 2000; Tatum, 1997). Stu- pecially interventions that help people
dents of color who have been educated negotiate the tension and disequilib-
in environments dominated by Euro- rium that can be produced in diverse
pean Americans have been shown to decision-making groups, and recom-
have experienced an accumulation of mendations about how educators and
racial microaggressions—stereotyping, practitioners can integrate best prac-
victimization and invisibility in the tices into their work with individuals
curriculum—that negatively affect their and communities.
learning experiences. Therefore dialog-
ic multicultural education may have a Nola Butler Byrd is a scholar and
different effect on them, as well as on Assistant Professor in the Community-
other participants from underrepre- Based Block Program in the Depart-
sented groups versus European Ameri- ment of Counseling and School Psy-
cans (Tatum, 1997); and (c) A threshold chology, College of Education at San
effect. There may have been a threshold Diego State University, 5500 Campa-
effect similar to Pettigrew and Tropp’s nile Drive, San Diego, CA 92182-1179;
(2000) explanation of their finding email: [email protected]. Her
that contact effects are greater for par- research interests include: experien-
ticipants who are forced to participate tial multicultural education and coun-
in intergroup interventions than those seling for social justice, indigenous
who were willing volunteer. Examining healing and world view, somatic body
these hypotheses may lead to greater work, multicultural identity develop-
understanding of variables related to ment, multi-ethnic faculty retention,
learning disequilibrium in the develop- and community practice.
mental process of multicultural iden-
tity and competence.
Investigating a mature multicul-
tural training program with a high de-
gree of ethnic diversity and immigrant
representation in both its student and
faculty populations was a significant
research opportunity. This study ex-
tends the knowledge base in the fields