ERIC EJ835844: Using Technology to Assist Gifted Children's Musical Development

2009·3.2 MB·English

by  ERIC

by
Stephen T. Schroth,
Jason A. Helfer,
and Richard Dammers
54 spring 2009 • vol 32, no 2
ifted Children benefit, as do all students, from
music instruction (Helfer & Schroth, 2008a; Kay &
Subotnik, 1994; Smutny & von Fremd, 2004). Many
teachers and parents, although not musical themselves, are
comfortable teaching gifted students about music apprecia-
tion and perhaps even beginning instruction with regard to
various instruments (Baum, Owen, & Oreck, 1996; Helfer &
Schroth, 2008a). More problematic, however, is how to teach
gifted students about musical composition when the teacher
or parent does not possess composition skills. Manipulating
sounds provides an excellent initial entry into the world of
music for children who demonstrate precocity in musical
performance as well as gifted children showing an affinity
to particular musical genres. Young composers’ work can be
supported in many ways, including through the use of com-
puter hardware and software. Using musical technology allows
students to revise and revisit their work over time and in for-
mats that are both visual and aural. Technology also allows a
far greater number of entry points to students, teachers, and
parents, including those with little musical expertise. Teachers
and parents who lack composition skills, however, typically
have many questions about how to proceed. How can I help
my child when I am not comfortable with musical concepts
and terminology? Will composition instruction help or hinder
my child’s development as a performer? Can children who
are not especially good at performing compose? When should
composition activities be introduced to gifted children?
gifted child today 55
Using Technology to Assist Musical Development
Questions of this nature are impor- hardware and software requirements in a gifted classroom or with individ-
tant. For gifted children’s musical abili- for those packages, so that parents and ual students therefore will supplement
ties to emerge and for musical talents teachers may better assess equipment and support ongoing musical activi-
to develop fully, students’ musical needed for compositional activities. ties in the traditional music classroom
potentiality must be recognized, les- (Swanwick, 1988, 1994). The instruc-
sons and other services provided, and Composition With tional flexibility composition allows
learning assessed (Johnsen, 2003; Gifted Children teachers to address a wide range of
Schroth, 2007). Recent software learning objectives with a diverse
developments have greatly increased group of students.
Approaching musical study with
and enhanced the compositional Teachers using composition, for
gifted children presents an interest-
opportunities available to gifted stu- example, may ask students to invent
ing challenge. Instruments used to
dents. Even children who are gifted notation as a means to show what
identify students as gifted may or
performers may have difficulty notat- they are thinking in terms of musi-
may not identify whether a student
ing those sounds and forms that are cal concepts (Bamberger, 1991/1995;
is musically gifted (see Baum et al.,
pleasing to them. Optimally, instruc- Upitis, 1992). This invented notation
1996; McKay, 1983; Oreck, Owen,
tion of all kinds should be matched can occur with or without computers,
& Baum, 2003). Even when students
to a student’s readiness level, interests, with or without special tools, or with or
are viewed as being musically gifted,
and learning profile (see Smutny & without specific software. Additionally,
they may not be gifted in all three of
von Fremd, 2004; Tomlinson, 1999, music instruction within the schools
the primary engagements of music:
2001). Readiness level refers to a stu- or opportunities at home may include
creating/composing, listening, and per-
dent’s knowledge, understanding, and access to software programs that will
forming. As a result, in any given group
skill related to a specific sequence of
provide an easel upon which students
of gifted students, a wide range of
learning, factors that are the result of
can notate their work, where the child
musical skills and abilities will almost
cognitive proficiency and prior expe-
or group has the opportunity to hear
certainly be present. Teachers and par-
riences (Tomlinson, 1999). Interests
the composition in real time, and, when
ents who work with groups of gifted
include those topics or pursuits that
necessary, revise the work. Depending
students, especially those teachers and
evoke curiosity and passion in a learner
on the students’ readiness levels, inter-
parents who lack an extensive musi-
(Tomlinson, 2001). Learning profile
ests, and learning profiles, teachers and
cal background themselves, often feel
references factors influencing how
parents can design and deliver instruc-
students learn best, including learning underprepared by the challenge pre-
tion that provides active engagement
styles, intelligence preferences, culture, sented. Because most public school
with musical materials (Schafer, 1967).
and gender (Tomlinson, 1999, 2001). music instruction, as well as private
Given the wide variety of technical sup-
Current software packages fea- individual instruction, focuses upon
port available, students may begin to
ture a flexibility and ease of use that developing a child’s technical facil-
compose based upon their musical intu-
allows students, parents, and teachers ity and musicality, considering com-
itions first, often with very rewarding
numerous opportunities to differen- position as a tool that supports that
results. After this beginning, teachers
tiate the child’s musical experiences. child’s overall musical development is
and parents will find that planning out
Many composition software options important (Music Educators National
compositional experiences will contrib-
exist that allow teachers and parents to Conference [MENC], 1994).
ute to increased student understanding
differentiate instruction in these ways. Composition provides an effec-
and engagement.
This article provides teachers and par- tive way to address the range of abili-
ents support in three areas. First, the ties and experiences found in most
Planning Musical
importance of composition as a means classrooms. Composition instruction
Composition Instruction
to strengthen gifted children’s involve- allows students active engagement with
ment with and opportunities in music music in small groups or individually
will be examined. Second, brief cases according to their skills and interests. All good instruction focuses on
will be provided that give answers to Although performing and listening the concepts and principles impor-
the questions asked at the outset of often are taught in schools, compos- tant to the particular subject as a dis-
this article. Finally, specific software ing frequently is ignored (Elliot, 1995; cipline (Bruner, Goodnow, & Austin,
packages will be examined, including Reimer, 2003). Compositional study 1977; Callahan, 2001; Renzulli &
56 spring 2009 • vol 32, no 2
Using Technology to Assist Musical Development
Reis, 1997; Sternberg & Grigorenko, approach to beginning composition, different ways thus affords novice
2000; Tomlinson, 2003; Tomlinson & which may well include a specific composers the opportunity to con-
Callahan, 1992). This axiom extends to software environment. Teachers and struct compositions that may serve a
quality musical composition instruction parents will at some point want to variety of purposes. Even children who
(Smutny & von Fremd, 2004; Upitis, memorialize the child’s compositions. sight read standard notation can ben-
1992). The design of a composition To do so the child generally will use efit from having the option of graphic
project for a student should start with either standard musical notation or notation as it allows a more personal-
his or her musical background and abili- graphic notation (Cage & Knowles, ized means of recording their composi-
ties. Although there are assessment tools 1969; Rudolph & Leonard, 2002; tions. Michael, a 12-year-old who had
focused primarily on aural discernment Stone, 1980; Upitis, 1992). Standard experimented with standard notation,
and performance skills that may help musical notation uses a five-line staff, found graphic notation more expres-
assess some of a student’s musical abili- with pitch shown by the placement sive when creating jazz compositions.
ties, an informal assessment of students’ of notes on the staff and duration Graphic composition also had the
musical experience and ability generally indicated by use of various note val- advantage of allowing Michael to share
is adequate and perhaps more revealing. ues (Bamberger, 1991/1995; Cage & his composition with friends who did
Teachers or parents can begin working Knowles, 1969; Rudolph & Leonard, not read standard notation and allow-
with their child to structure a guided 2002; Stone, 1980). Standard musical ing that composition to be performed
investigation by considering questions notation is, of course, what most of by a potentially larger group.
such as: us envision when we think of written Once a profile is constructed, teach-
• Does the student play an instru- music. Graphic notation focuses on ers and parents must assist the child
ment or sing? using nontraditional symbols and text in understanding the concepts that
• If so, for how long, how well, and to indicate how a piece of music should will be manipulated in order to cre-
what has been the nature of his or be performed (Bamberger, 1991/1995; ate a composition. Specific musical
her study? Cage & Knowles, 1969; Upitis, 1992). concepts, such as timbre, rhythm, and
• Does the child like to create? Does Graphic notation is commonly used in tone must be reviewed and, if neces-
he or she like to write stories, draw experimental music. sary, taught to students. Using the stu-
and paint pictures, or engage in It is not necessarily the case that dent’s musical profile and a sense of
similar activities? students who demonstrate advanced what musical concepts will be focused
• How familiar is the student with musical skills and aptitude will neces- upon, musical learning experiences can
musical concepts such as timbre, sarily demonstrate comparable skills be readily designed for gifted students.
rhythm, melody, and other such and aptitude in composition. Put In addition to considering the child’s
terms? differently, even if the child is a pro- readiness level, interests, and learning
• Has the child had exposure to ficient performer, he or she may very profile, determining the type of soft-
music, be it classical, jazz, popular, well be a novice or insecure composer. ware that will best support the child’s
or world music? How much and in Depending upon the task complexity musical development is useful.
what context? and the intended use of the composi- Software programs generally can
• Has the student ever created a tion, a child may wish to use graphic be grouped into two categories, stan-
musical composition? notation even if he or she is somewhat dard notation and graphic notation.
• Does the student read standard familiar with standard musical nota- Standard notation programs may be
musical notation? tion. Indeed, children benefit from appropriate for students who already
• For what purpose is the child com- understanding that many composers perform and read music, and programs
posing (e.g., to demonstrate spe- create compositions using nontra- that use graphic representations are
cific musical concepts, to express ditional musical notation. The child helpful for students who do not read
an idea through sound)? also may possess technical facility on notation or are not comfortable manip-
his or her instrument, including the ulating sounds using standard notation.
Using these questions, teachers and ability to read standard musical nota- The way in which the child’s ideas are
parents will be able to create a musical tion, but not have a sense of how to made into sound that can be played
profile of each child. This profile assists move beyond the replication of what and refined using the software is depen-
the child and his teacher in selecting is on the page the teacher assigned. dent upon the interface used by the
continued on page ??
the most appropriate instructional Thinking about musical concepts in computer. If a student has piano key-
gifted child today 57
Using Technology to Assist Musical Development
board skills, it may be helpful to select constructed of sounds that move by the student projects, and cost. It is dif-
a program that can take input from a step, skip, or stay the same (see Gagné, ficult to describe in detail, however, the
Musical Instrument Digital Interface 1985). Concrete concepts focuses upon nuances of each of the Web-based or
(MIDI) keyboard or controller. being able to classify objects and events software programs. Parents, students,
according to their distinguishing fea- and teachers are encouraged to visit
Musical Composition tures, such as timbre (the difference the sites and experience how these pro-
between a trumpet and an oboe), grams do indeed assist a child in the
in Action
articulation (the relative length of an development of his musicality. With
individual sound), and dynamics (the rare exception, the hardware require-
Children with different readiness
relative loudness or softness of specific ments of each program are standard
levels, interests, and learning profiles
sounds or groups of sounds; see Gagné equipment that is obtained with the
require and benefit from differentiated
& Medsker, 1996). Defined concepts purchase of almost any new computer.
instruction (Smutny & von Fremd,
revolve around classifying objects,
2004; Tomlinson, 1999, 2001, 2003;
events, or ideas according to defini- Example 1: Discrimination and
Ward, 1980). Tying the differenti-
tions, such as distinguishing between Concrete Concepts
ated instruction to learning outcomes
examples of baroque and classical com-
speeds instruction, expedites mastery,
positions (see Gagné, Wager, Golas, & Hannah is a second grader who has
and hastens assimilation (Gagné,
Keller, 2004). Using rules entails doing limited musical experiences. She has
1985; Tomlinson, 2003; Ward, 1980).
something using symbols or concepts, completed 6 months of piano lessons
Because an important purpose of sup-
such as using basic notation to record and enjoys listening to, and singing
porting a child’s development through
a melody (see Gagné, 1985; Gagné & with, her favorite music. Her mother
composition is conceptual develop-
Medsker, 1996). Finally, higher order decided to have Hannah explore the
ment and refinement, the examples
rules involves combining several simple differences and relationship between
provided below are grounded in
rules into a complex rule to do some- melody (music may move by step, skip,
Gagné’s and his colleagues’ outcomes
thing, such as using notation systems or stay the same; music may move up
of learning, which include intellectual
to denote the parts for various instru- and down) and rhythm (individual
skill, discrimination, concrete concepts,
ments in a concerto (see Gagné, 1985; sounds may be shorter or longer than
defined concepts, rules, and higher order
Gagné et al., 2004). the sounds that precede or follow)
rules. These five outcomes are premised
The majority of gifted children will by composing short pieces using the
upon a novice-to-expert continuum. have facility with the intellectual skills sketch pad on Morton Subotnick’s
They are useful to consider because related to music, such as technical Creating Music Web site (http://
of the asynchrony in an individual’s facility on instruments or the ability www.creatingmusic.com). In order
musical development that may occur to read notation (Helfer & Schroth, to use Creating Music, Hannah only
between the performer and composer. 2008b; Schroth & Helfer, 2008). needed to know how to use a mouse.
Although Gagné’s outcomes of Some also will demonstrate discrimi- Hannah could see how the music
learning traditionally have been illus- nation, which may manifest itself in sounded because the site uses graphic
trated with examples from reading or a highly developed “ear” by which a notation. Hannah quickly grasped
mathematics instruction, they also child can create stylistically appropriate the ideas of melody and rhythm
are applicable to music education (C. additions to a musical context, such through the graphic notation used in
A. Tomlinson, personal communica- as a garage band playing a song in a the sketchpad. She also was able to
tion, May 24, 2008). Intellectual skill funk style. The goal of teachers and learn about the difference between a
involves knowing how to do some- parents must be to determine where limited palate of timbres. Hannah’s
thing, such as learning that symbols children are and then move them along ability to distinguish between timbres
can represent sounds or tempo (see to more sophisticated outcomes of provided her with additional musi-
Gagné, 1985; Gagné & Medsker, learning (Gagné et al., 2004; Schroth cal ideas. She enjoyed composing so
1996). Discrimination involves the & Helfer, 2008). The Web sites and much that her mother purchased the
ability to distinguish one feature of an software programs referenced below expanded Making Music and Making
object from another, such as being able were selected based upon their ability More Music CD-ROMs that allowed
to distinguish one sound from another, to facilitate such movement, as well as Hannah create her own notebook of
or understand that a melody may be their ease of use, appropriateness for original songs.
58 spring 2009 • vol 32, no 2
Using Technology to Assist Musical Development
Technical requirements: Macintosh primary drawback is that, unlike meets thrice weekly after school.
or PC (with sound card), monitor, Finale, it does not take input from He has limited notation skills. He
keyboard, mouse, speakers, Internet a MIDI keyboard. Because Jessica is expressed an interest in exploring
access, Making Music CD-ROM not a piano player, however, this is classical music to his European his-
(optional), Making More Music not an issue as she can use keyboard tory seminar teacher. His teacher rec-
CD-ROM (optional). commands or the computer’s mouse ommended that he use the timeline
to input melody, rhythm, and expres- on the Classical Archives Web site
Example 2: Defined Concepts sive markings for each instrument (http://www.classicalarchives.com) to
part. Using Finale NotePad, Jessica select a prominent composer from the
Jessica is a middle school student was able to strengthen her skills in time they were studying. Todd down-
who is the first-chair flutist in her reading and manipulating notation loaded a MIDI file of a Bach Fugue
school band. She is a self- from the archive.
motivated learner and finds He opened the file
great satisfaction in creating in Intuem (http://
her own music. Previously, www.intuem.com),
Jessica spent time work- sequencing soft-
ing with graphic notation. ware, and viewed the
In fact, she has created an tracks in the graphic
entire songbook of flute representation. Todd
compositions using Making used this as a virtual
Music software. When she score for his listen-
shared this work with her ing. Then, by cutting
music teacher, Mr. Allan, and pasting bits of
he noticed that Jessica was the Bach, Todd cre-
very sensitive to articula- ated his own remixed
tion (the long, short, loud, version of the piece,
or soft of individual notes). maintaining the
For Jessica, composing style of the period.
was a powerful experience, He then burned an
and Mr. Allan recognized audio recording of
that her numerous pieces his version to CD and
were an attempt at express- played both versions
ing large musical ideas. for the seminar.
Hoping that Jessica might Technical require-
develop a greater sensitivity ments: Macintosh or
toward timbre, such as the differences and distinguish between compositions PC (sound card), monitor, keyboard,
between a trumpet and an oboe, Mr. that were “happy,” “sad,” and “jolly” mouse, speakers, Internet access, CD
Allan challenged her to orchestrate though articulation and timbre. burner, Intuem.
her compositions for a chamber suite Technical requirements: Macintosh
using an ensemble of flute, clarinet, or PC (with sound card), monitor, Example 4: Higher Order Rules
saxophone, and trumpet. Mr. Allan keyboard, mouse, speakers, Internet
also arranged for the finished compo- access, printer, Finale NotePad. Bill is a high school student who
sition to be performed at the school’s has studied piano from a young age.
annual spring concert, which greatly Example 3: Rules Although classically trained, he also
motivated Jessica. In order to assist plays keyboard in a rock band with
her with her work, Mr. Allan pro- Todd is a bright high school junior several classmates. His teacher decided
vided her with Finale NotePad, which who has not studied music in school to reinvigorate his classical study by
is the free version of the widely used since his general music classes in presenting the challenge of writing his
Finale notation program (http://www. elementary school. Todd is a gifted own piano sonata. His teacher framed
makemusic.com). Finale NotePad’s bass player in his garage band, which his work by asking Bill to answer the
gifted child today 59
Using Technology to Assist Musical Development
question, “How do I make a sonata?” cepts through the medium of compo- Gagné, R. M., Wager, W. W., Golas, K.,
This project started with extensive lis- sition. Considering a child’s interests, & Keller, J. M. (2004). Principles of
tening to and analysis of piano sona- readiness levels, and learning profile instructional design (5th ed.). Belmont,
tas by Mozart and Beethoven. Bill first and then designing or supporting the CA: Wadsworth.
Helfer, J. A., & Schroth, S. T. (2008a).
sketched out a broad plan for the form, design of composition opportunities
Aesthetic percipience part 1: The value
concentrating on the organization of so that learning outcomes progress to
of supporting gifted students’ appre-
the larger sections of the musical com- the next level is one important way a
ciation of and affinity for the fine arts.
position. Bill next began to play with well-rounded musician can develop.
Gifted Education Press Quarterly, 22(2),
ideas on his piano at home. He used The challenges of parents, teachers, and
10–18.
his computer, equipped with a USB students who are unsure of their ability
Helfer, J. A., & Schroth, S. T. (2008b).
microphone and Audacity, the free as musicians in general or composers Aesthetic percipience part 2: Instruc-
recording software (http://audacity. specifically can be lessened by the use of tional strategies that support gifted
sourceforge.net), to record his explo- Web-based and software composition students’ appreciation of and affinity
rations. After reviewing his audio note- tools. Table 1 contains a list of some for the fine arts. Gifted Education Press
book, Bill refined the themes for each additional technology resources that Quarterly, 22(3), 11–14.
of the movements of the sonata and teachers and parents have found useful Johnsen, S. K. (2003). Issues in the assess-
began to settle on a final version, which in assisting children who are learning ment of talent development. In J. H.
Borland (Ed.), Rethinking gifted educa-
he then notated using a MIDI control- to compose. The wealth of resources
tion (pp. 201–214). New York: Teach-
ler and Sibelius, the notation software. available today for little or no cost can
ers College Press.
Bill then submitted his printed score revolutionize the use of this instruc-
Kay, S. I., & Subotnik, R. F. (1994). Tal-
and his Audacity recording to a local tional strategy with gifted children. GCT
ent beyond words: Unveiling spatial,
composition contest where he was
expressive, kinesthetic, and musical
awarded a prize. References
talent in young children. Gifted Child
Technical requirements: Macintosh Quarterly, 38, 70–74.
or PC (sound card), monitor, key- Bamberger, J. (1991/1995). The mind McKay, M. D. (1983). Is music a trap for
board, mouse, speakers, USB micro- behind the musical ear: How children the academically gifted? Music Educa-
phone, printer, CD burner, MIDI develop musical intelligence. Cambridge, tors Journal, 69(8), 32–33.
controller keyboard Internet access, MA: Harvard University Press. Music Educators National Conference.
Sibelius (or Finale). Baum, S., Owen, S. V., & Oreck, B. A. (1994). The national standards for music
(1996). Talent beyond words: Identifi- education. Reston, VA: Author.
Conclusion cation of potential talent in dance and Oreck, B. A., Owen, S. V., & Baum, S. M.
music in elementary students. Gifted (2003). Validity, reliability, and equity
Child Quarterly, 40, 93–101. issues in an observational talent assess-
Many gifted children are exposed
Bruner, J. S., Goodnow, J. J., & Austin, ment process in the performing arts.
to music as listeners or performers or G. A. (1977). A study of thinking. New Journal for the Education of the Gifted,
both. Children who are sophisticated York: John Wiley & Sons. 27, 62–94.
listeners recognize the importance of Cage, J., & Knowles, A. (1969). Notations. Reimer, B. (2003). A philosophy of music
and differences between the various New York: Something Else Press. education: Advancing the vision (3rd
works they hear and are knowledge- Callahan, C. M. (2001). Fourth down and ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice
able about a sometimes large and sig- inches. Journal of Secondary Gifted Edu- Hall.
nificant repertoire. Children who are cation, 12, 148–156. Renzulli, J. S., & Reis, S. M. (1997). The
Elliott, D. J. (1995). Music matters: A Schoolwide Enrichment Model: A how-
gifted performers are able to make a
new philosophy of music education. New to guide for educational excellence (2nd
musical composition come alive by
York: Oxford University Press. ed.). Mansfield, CT: Creative Learning
translating the various markings on a
Gagné, R. M. (1985). The conditions of Press.
musical score into expressive sound.
learning (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: Rudolph, T. E., & Leonard, V. A., Jr.
Although encyclopedic knowledge or
Holt, Rinehart & Winston. (2002). Finale: An easy guide to music
technical facility are both important
Gagné, R. M., & Medsker, K. L. (1996). notation. Boston: Berklee Press.
ways of demonstrating a child’s devel- The conditions of learning: Training Schafer, R. M. (1967). Ear cleaning: Notes
oping musicality, gifted children also applications. Fort Worth, TX: Harcourt for an experimental music course. New
benefit from investigating musical con- Brace. York: Associated Music Publishers.
60 spring 2009 • vol 32, no 2
Using Technology to Assist Musical Development
Table 1
Technology Resources for Composing
Type Description Choices
Notation Two standard notation programs dominate the market, Finale and Sibelius. Both Finale (Mac/PC): http://www.
Programs programs allow the user to notate, play back, and print their compositions. Children makemusic.com
must be able to read traditional notation in order to use the programs. Finale
and Sibelius also include a variety of templates for instrumentation, as well as a Sibelius (Mac/PC): http://www.
great deal of flexibility so the composer can choose instrumentation, meter, and sibelius.com
expression markings.
Recording Audacity is an audio editor and recording software. Audacity can be used free of Audacity (Mac/PC): http://
Software charge and works on a variety of platforms. Audacity allows children to import a audacity.sourceforge.net
wide variety of audio files (.mpeg, .wav, .aiff) and manipulate them using an easy-
to-understand interface. Audacity also allows users to create CD recordings of their
work.
Sequencing A sequencing program allows the user to create individual tracks (individual GarageBand (Mac): http://www.
Programs instrument lines) that can be “stacked” upon other tracks (e.g., one can create an apple.com/ilife/garageband
oboe track and also a percussion section track that play concurrently). GarageBand,
Intuem, and Cakewalk are among the more popular and useful sequencing Intuem (Mac): http://www.
programs available. Each of the programs contains some form of graphic notation intuem.com
so children can see their different tracks in “real” time. All of the programs also have
an export feature in which compositions can be exported as .midi or .mp3 files. Cakewalk (PC): http://www.
cakewalk.com
Beginning Both Making Music and TuneBlocks are free programs that encourage and Making Music (Mac/PC): http://
Composition enable beginning composition. TuneBlocks has more instruments from which to www.creatingmusic.com
Programs choose than does Making Music. Making Music, however, is Web-based, whereas
TuneBlocks needs to be downloaded to the user’s desktop. Each program focuses TuneBlocks (Mac/PC): http://
on graphic notation. These programs may be conceptualized as sketchpads in www.tuneblocks.com
which composers can play with sound.
Web Resources The Vermont MIDI Project is a consortium of public and private schools (mostly in Vermont MIDI Project: http://
the Eastern United States) and a small number of universities and colleges. Schools www.vtmidi.org
or individuals who register (at no cost) with the project are provided a space where
they can upload their compositions for others to hear and critique. There also are
many resources for teachers and parents who wish to support their charges in the
act and art of composition.
Schroth, S. T. (2007). Levels of service. Stone, K. (1980). Music notation in the Tomlinson, C. A. (2003). Fulfilling the
In C. M. Callahan & J. A. Plucker twentieth century: A practical guidebook. promise of the differentiated classroom:
(Eds.), Critical issues and practices in New York: W. W. Norton & Co. Strategies and tools for responsive teaching.
gifted education (pp. 281–294). Waco, Swanwick, K. (1988). Music, mind, and Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervi-
TX: Prufrock Press. education. New York: Routledge. sion and Curriculum Development.
Schroth, S. T., & Helfer, J. A. (2008). Gifted Tomlinson, C. A., & Callahan, C. M. (1992).
Swanwick, K. (1994). Musical knowledge:
learners and the arts: Opportunities for Contributions of gifted education to gen-
Intuition, analysis, and music education.
depth and breadth. Illinois Association for eral education in a time of change. Gifted
New York: Routledge.
Gifted Children Journal, 9, 3–9. Child Quarterly, 36, 183–189.
Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differenti-
Smutny, J. F., & von Fremd, S. E. (2004). Upitis, R. (1992). Can I play you my song?
ated classroom: Responding to the needs
Differentiating for the young child: The compositions and invented notations
of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Associa-
Teaching strategies across the content areas of children. Portsmouth, NH: Heine-
tion for Supervision and Curriculum
(K–3). Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin mann Drama.
Development.
Press. Ward, V. S. (1980). Differential education
Sternberg, R. S., & Grigorenko, E. L. Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to dif- for the gifted: A perspective through a ret-
(2000). Teaching for successful intelli- ferentiate instruction in mixed-ability rospective (Vol. 2). Ventura, CA: Ventura
gence: To increase student learning and classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: County Superintendent of Schools Office
achievement. Arlington Heights, IL: Association for Supervision and Cur- & National/State Leadership Training
continued on page ??
SkyLight Professional Development. riculum Development. Institute on the Gifted and Talented.
gifted child today 61