ERIC EJ833236: Targeting Children in the Cereal Aisle: Promotional Techniques and Content Features on Ready-to-Eat Cereal Product Packaging

2008·0.17 MB·English

by  ERIC

Research Article
Targeting Children in the Cereal Aisle: Promotional
Techniques and Content Features on Ready-to-Eat
Cereal Product Packaging
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
ABSTRACT
Background: Despite recent and heightened concern about the marketing of food to children as a health issue, there
is little previous research describing the product packaging characteristics of specific products intensely marketed to
children. Purpose: In order to better understand food marketing tactics targeting children, the purpose of this study
was to examine the promotional techniques and content features of ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal packages. Methods: A
content analysis of 122 cereal product packages assessed front panel characteristics, premium offers, cross-promotions,
activity features, characters and celebrities, web sites, and other content features. Results: It was observed that cereal
packaging contains a wide variety of features likely to enhance the impulsivity of children to choose a particular prod-
uct at the point-of-sale (e.g., children’s characters, appears ready-to-eat, games and other fun activities). Discussion:
The product packaging practices of food companies selling high sugar products, including presweetened cereals, is one
area that needs serious examination in setting forth public policy measures surrounding the issue of food marketing
to children. Translation to Health Education Practice: These findings are useful in the context of the planning of
health education and public policy interventions which aim to reduce children’s (and their parents’) susceptibility to
aggressive food marketing tactics.
BACKGROUND of food products targeting children.4 Sales
The marketing of food to children and promotions are a significant part of the U.S. Randy Page is a professor in the Department of
youth is an important health and nutrition marketing environment with spending for Health Science, Brigham Young University, 221
issue, particularly in view of the fact that sales promotions now exceeding that for Richards Building, Provo, UT 84604; E-mail:
overweight and obesity rates have risen advertising.5 In the U.S., $3 billion is spent [email protected]. Katie Montgomery is an
in children.1 Food companies cleverly use annually on packaging designed specifically undergraduate student in the Department of
product packaging to create visual appeal, for children.6 The products lining the shelves Health Science, Brigham Young University, 221
attract children’s attention, and build brand of supermarkets’ frequently use children’s Richards Building, Provo, UT 84604. Andrea
loyalty and as a marketing tool to entice favorite characters to market food directly Ponder is an undergraduate student in the
consumers (parents and children) to buy to children and research has shown this to Department of Health Science, Brigham Young
a product at the point-of-sale.2,3 Product be particularly effective in assisting chil- University, 221 Richards Building, Provo, UT
packaging is used as a vehicle to offer sales dren’s advertising slogan recall and ability 84604. Amanda Richard is a Master of Public
promotion techniques, such as premiums to identify products.4, 7 Product packaging Health student in the Department of Health
and cross-promotions, with popular TV and marketing teaches children to recognize Science, Brigham Young University, 221 Richards
movie characters to enhance the marketing brands and “pester” their parents to buy.8, 9 Building, Provo, UT 84604.
272 American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
By two years of age, most children can rec- calcium, iron, folic acid and B vitamins), The instrument was used to identify the
ognize products in supermarkets and ask for despite high added sugar content. Presweet- presence (1) or absence (0) of specific pro-
them by name.1 Household purchase deci- ened cereals are a major source of added motion techniques and content features. For
sions are increasingly being made together sugar in the diets of U.S. children19, 20 and the purposes of this study, promotion was
by parents and children, where parents as consumption of excess calories from added defined operationally in the same manner
gatekeepers choose the product category sugars is a risk factor for overweight and as that used by Chapman et al. and Hawkes
and children choose the brand (e.g., “we obesity11, 20 and dental caries.21 as marketing and sales promotions used on
need to buy some cereal, which one would food packaging designed to entice consum-
you like?”). PURPOSE ers to buy a product at the point-of-sale.
Breakfast cereal is the third most popular The purpose of this study was to ex- Front Panel Characteristics. The following
item sold at grocery stores, following soft amine cereal packages for promotional front panel characteristics were assessed:
drinks and milk, and 40% of all breakfast techniques and content features. We limited enlarged image of the cereal; image of the
consumed in the United States includes our analysis to cereal packages from the cereal in a ready-to-eat fashion; image(s) of
one of the 400 kinds of cereal available in top four competitors in the national RTE a toy or other merchandise that might attract
the American marketplace.10 Ready-to-eat cereal market (Kellogg, General Mills, Post, kids; advertises sweetness; advertises fruity
(RTE) cereals represent about 90%-95% of Quaker) and excluded private label brands or fruit-flavored; advertises other flavors or
cereal sales and children represent the largest because they do not typically include pro- ingredients that might appeal to children
sector of the RTE cereal market.11 The cereal motions and are not as heavily marketed (e.g., chocolaty, cinnamon, marshmallow);
market aisle is larger than any other section as the top four cereal producers. This study advertises something as free; and has a “lure.”
of most grocery stores, much of which is represents the first systematic study in the A lure was operationally defined as refer-
dominated by numerous varieties of pre- health and nutrition literature to describe ences to the back of the package or other
sweetened RTE cereals targeting children.2 product packaging characteristics of a panels for more information or content (e.g.,
This area of the supermarket has tremen- specific product intensely marketed to chil- “see back for details,” “answers on back”).
dous aesthetic appeal for children displaying dren and represents an important avenue Premium Offers. Premium offers that
hundreds of brightly multicolored boxes/ of investigation for understanding food were assessed included: giveaways (pack-
packages of cereal with cartoon-like char- marketing tactics targeting children. age contains something free inside such
acters and other visual features competing as a toy, candy, or other merchandise);
to get children’s attention.12, 13 The RTE METHODS qualified giveaways (“free” offer requires
cereal industry is highly concentrated, with Coding Instrument qualifications that require purchasing the
the top four competitors, Kellogg, General An instrument was developed to record product – e.g., “fill out official order form
Mills, Post, and Quaker making practically promotional strategies and content features inside this box,” “UPCs from specially
all of the branded RTE cereal in the U.S., of RTE cereal packages within seven catego- market packages,” mail in proof of pur-
and accounting for 84% of all RTE cereal ries. The categories were front panel charac- chase to get merchandise); special purchase
sales.14 These four companies rarely compete teristics, premium offers, cross-promotions, offers (offer to buy something); rebates
with each other on the basis of price, but do activity features, characters and celebrities, or coupons; code (get the code inside to
compete through a variety of promotional web sites, and other content features. These play game on product web site or for other
strategies.15 These major cereal makers spend categories were based on the following premium offer); chance to win prize(s);
10% to 15% of the value of their sales on reviews of food marketing and children: qualified chance or eligibility for winning
advertising and marketing to differentiate (1) Food Marketing to Children and Youth: prize(s) (chance to win or eligibility to win
brands, reduce product substitutability, and Threat or Opportunity? (The Institute of contest/sweepstake requires purchasing the
create demand segments in the market. Pri- Medicine); (2) Review of the Research on product); collectibles (a type of premium
vate-label cereals, also know as store brands, the Effects of Food Promotion to Children that consumers may desire to have as
are not heavily promoted or advertised; they (Centre for Social Marketing, University of part of a greater collection of similar
are sold at prices that are significantly less Strathclyde) 22; and (3) Food Advertising and goods, (e.g., trading cards, action figures
than those of branded cereals.15, 16 Marketing Directed at Children and Adoles- from a movie); limited time offers (includes
Cereal companies tout the nutritional cents in the U.S. 23 Research by Chapman et the words “limited time offer” and/or any
benefits of eating breakfast and eating cereal al.4 (conducted in Australian supermarkets) offer that lasts for a limited time such as
for breakfast.17, 18 Even presweetened cereals and the formative examination of cereal games, activities, prizes, or other promo-
are promoted as nutritious because they packages in U.S. supermarkets conducted by tions that are advertised as available for
are typically consumed with milk and are our research team also guided the develop- a limited time); and fund-raising oppor-
fortified with vitamins and minerals (e.g., ment of this instrument. tunities (fund-raising opportunities for a
American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5 273
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
school or other group which usually include of interest to kids. and fantasy themes were used to make the
selling opportunities). Other. The other category was used product exciting and intriguing to children
Cross-Promotions. Cross-promotions as- to assess whether the package: identified (e.g., animated or cartoon-like characters),
sessed: movie tie-ins (show movie characters association/sponsorship with a noncom- featured popular children’s celebrities or
from a particular movie or offers merchan- mercial organization(s); included explicit characters from children’s television pro-
dise, activities, or incentives associated with encouragement to exercise or be physically grams or movies, or contained premium of-
the movie); TV show or TV network tie-in active (contains wording or text to this ef- fers that would appeal to children. Children
(show TV characters from a particular TV fect); included implicit exercise/physical were defined as being 12 years of age and
show or offers merchandise, activities, or activity (shows a character exercising, play- under. Table 1 displays the products included
incentives associated with the show); toy or ing sports, or engaging in physical activity); in the analysis.
other merchandise tie-in (shows popular toy contains a graphic(s) identifying the product
Analysis Procedures
or has toy offers or other activities/incentives as “healthy” or “nutritious;” contains explicit
Packages were analyzed by a single
associated with the toy or other merchan- encouragement of good nutrition or healthy
analyst. To establish inter-rater reliability, a
dise – e.g., music CDs, music players, cell eating (contains text or wording); and
random sample of 25 of the packages from
phones); food product tie-in (shows other whether sugar or sugar derivatives are listed
the sample of cereal packages was also inde-
food products or has offers associated with as one of first three ingredients by weight.
pendently analyzed by another member of
another food product—not just another In addition to the categories described
the research team. Inter-rater reliability sta-
flavor or variety of the same product); and above, the survey instrument required pack-
tistics were calculated using Pram software
other tie-in (a tie-in with another commer- age analysts to identify the following infor-
(version 0.4.5 Skymeg Software, http://www.
cial entity—e.g., NASCAR, NBA). mation about the product under examina-
geocities.com/skymegsoftware/pram.html).
Activity Features. Activity features that tion: brand name, package size in ounces,
The Cohen’s kappa statistic was 0.74 and the
were assessed were: solving activities (puz- manufacturer, grams of sugar per serving,
Holtsti’s coefficient of reliability was 0.94,
zles, word games, word searches, matching calories per serving, and percent of calories
which reflected overall percent of agreement
activities, finding activities, mazes, brainteas- from sugar (calculated from grams of sugar
between the two analysts of 94%.
ers, quizzes, riddles, etc.); finding answers to per serving and calories per serving).
Frequencies and percentages of each pro-
solving activities requiring product purchase Selection of Cereal Packages motional technique and content feature were
(e.g., look inside back panel for answers); A total of 122 cereal packages were calculated for all of the cereals combined
adventure activities (activities framed to be analyzed for the promotional strategies and by manufacturer. Chi-square tests were
an adventure that takes on sort of an “adven- and content described above. These cereal used to identify differences in promotional
ture” journey such as a treasure hunt); stories packages represent all of the child-targeted techniques and content features between
or story completion activities; jokes; inter- RTE individual cereal packages stocked on cereal manufacturers. Means and standard
esting facts or trivia; information or fantasy the shelves of three separate supermarkets deviations were also calculated for grams of
about the product is made; tricks or magic; representing three different supermarket sugar per serving, calories per serving, and
tips for playing sports; recipes (using the chains in a single Western U.S. community percent of calories from sugar (calculated
featured product or ideas/tips for product during a two-week time period in March from grams of sugar per serving and calo-
consumption or use); and artwork activities 2007. Because different package sizes of the ries per serving). Analysis of variance tests
(drawing, painting, coloring, etc.). same product (e.g., 13 ounces, 17 ounces) were used to determine differences in these
Characters/Celebrities. Cereal packages can contain different promotional strategies variables between manufacturers. Indices
were assessed for the following types of char- or content, all package sizes found on shelves were calculated for the following promo-
acters/celebrities appearing anywhere on the were included in the sample for analysis. tion technique categories by summing the
package and on the front panel: animated Also, when two different versions of the number of promotions present within the
(cartoon) characters; product ID characters; same product and package size were found, category: premium offers, cross-promotions,
movie character or actor; TV character or both versions of the product package were characters and celebrities, and activity
actor; sports star; and other celebrity. included in the sample of cereal packages. features. The premium offers index ranged
Web site. The web site category was used Analysis was limited to products marketed from 0 to 10 possible different premium of-
to determine whether the package: (1) iden- by Kellogg, General Mills, Post, and Quaker, fer promotions. The cross-promotions index
tifies or directs to an associated product or and did not include private-label brands. ranged from 0 to 5 possible different cross-
company web site and gives the associated The criteria for determining or classifying a promotions. The characters and celebrities
URL (‘hey kids we are on the web at…”); cereal product as “child-targeted” were ad- index ranged from 0 to 7 possible different
(2) identifies another commercial Web site; opted from Chapman et al.4 which identified characters and celebrities. The activity fea-
and (3) identifies a noncommercial web site a product for inclusion in the study if fun tures index ranged from 0 to 12 possible dif-
274 American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
Table 1. Ready-to-Eat Cereals in the Analysis (N=122)
Manufacturer/Brand Name Package Sizes (ozs) Manufacturer/Brand Name Package Sizes (ozs)
Kelloggs General Mills
Apple Jacks 15, 19.1 Berry Burst Cheerios 11
Barbie Fairytopia 10.4 Berry Burst Cheerios Strawberry Banana 11
Berry Krispies 14.7 Boo Berry 10.25
Caramel Nut Crunch (2) 13.7 Cheerios 10, 15, 20
Cocoa Krispies 17.5 Chocolate Lucky Charms 14.25
Cocoa Krispies Choconilla 18 Cinnamon Toast Crunch 14, 20.25, 26
Corn Pops 19.5 Cocoa Puffs 13.75
Cran-Vanilla Crunch 13.2 Cookie Crisp 12.25, 18.25
Crispex 12 Count Chocula 10.75
Eggo Maple Syrup 13.5 Dora The Explorer (2) 11.5
Froot Loops 19.7, 25 Double Chocolate Cookie Crisp 13.7
Froot Loops 1/3 Less Sugar (2) 16.5 Eggo Cinnamon Toast 13.8
Frosted Flakes 17, 20, 23, 23.5, 31 Frakenberry 10.25
Frosted Krispies 12.5 Frosted Cheerios 20.25
Mini-Wheats Frosted Strawberry Delight (2) 16.3 Fruity Cheerios 11.5
Mini-Wheats Frosted Big Bite 16, 20.4 Golden Grahams 13, 18
Mini-Wheats Frosted Bite Size 19, 24 Honey Nut Cheerios 14, 20, 27
Mini-Wheats Frosted Maple and Brown Sugar 16.5 Honey Nut Chex 15.25
Mini-Wheats Frosted Vanilla Crème 16.7 Honey Nut Clusters 17.25
Honey Nut Nemo O’s 14 Kix 9, 13
Honey Smacks 17.6 Little Einsteins 9.9
Hot Wheels 11.8 Lucky Charms 14, 20, 26
Marshmallow Froot Loops 12.6 Mickey Mouse Clubhouse Berry Crunch 11.6
Mini Swirlz Peanut Butter 15.9 Oatmeal Crisp 18
Raisin Bran Crunch 18.2 Princess Fairy Tale Flakes 11.4
Rice Krispies 10.5, 18 Reses Puffs 14.25, 20
Rice Krispies Treats 14.2 Trix 12, 17
Shrek Mutigrain Cereal with Marshmallows 11.8 Wheat Chex 16
Smorz 10.5 Wheaties 18, 20
Sponge Bob Square Pants 10.1 Yogurt Burst Cheerios Strawberry 12.9
Toasted Honey Crunch (2) 13.5 Yogurt Burst Cheerios Vanilla 12.9
Post Quaker
Baam-Baam Berry Pebbles 13 Cap’n Crunch 16, 22
Cinnamon Shredded Wheat 17 Chocolate Crunch 16
Cocoa Pubbles 13 Chocolatey Peanut Butter Crunch 13.1
Frosted Shredded Wheat 19 Cinnamon Life 15, 21
Fruity Pebbles 13, 17 Crunch Berries 15, 21
Golden Crisp 17 Life 15, 21
Honey Bunches of Oats 21 Life Chocolate Oat Crunch 13.3, 17.6
Honey Bunches of Oats Honey Roasted 16 Oatmeal Squares 24
Honey Bunches of Oats with Almonds 16, 21 Peanut Butter Crunch 14, 20.7
Honey Bunches of Oats with Cinnamon 14.5 Quaker Honey Graham O’s 12
Honey Bunches of Oats with Strawberries 13
Honey Comb 18.5
Honey Nut Shredded Wheat 20
Oreo O’s 15.25
*Note. Cereals identified with (2) indicate that two different versions of the particular cereal package were included in the analysis because they had
different content features.
American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5 275
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
ferent activity features. A total promotions (ANOVA) tests of association between observed is the frequent use of children’s
index was also calculated by summing the manufacturer and the cross-promotions [F favorite characters on cereal packages. A
premium offers, cross-promotions, char- (3, 121) = 4.7], premium offers [F (3, 121) = high proportion of the packages displayed a
acters and celebrities, and activity features 4.0], and total promotions [F (3, 121 = 4.7] visible animated (cartoon-like character) or
indices. Analysis of variance tests were also indices were significant (p < .05), but not other character popular with children. These
used to determine differences in these vari- for the activity index and the characters and characters were most frequently product ID
ables and the sugar and calorie content of the celebrities index. The mean grams of sugar characters, but also included movie and TV
examined cereals between manufacturers. per serving across all the cereal packages characters and less frequently sports stars.
The significance level of all statistical tests examined was 10.7 (SD = 4.0), 130.2 (SD = Most of the cereal packages included an
was p < .05 and analysis was conducted with 33.2) for calories per serving, and 33.8% (SD enlarged image of the cereal, usually in a
SAS version 9.1 for Windows. = 12.1) for percent of calories from sugar ready-to-eat fashion in a bowl, floating atop
per serving. ANOVA tests of association of milk, and often showing a spoon. Retail
RESULTS between manufacturer and grams of sugar studies have shown that up to 85% of all
The frequencies and percentages of cereal per serving [F(3, 121) = 6.9] and calories per consumer purchases are made on impulse,
packages containing the assessed promotion serving [F(3, 121) = 6.9] were significant (p a fact that drives companies to invest large
techniques and content features for all total < .05), but not for percent of calories from amounts of money in research and develop-
packages and by manufacturer are displayed sugar per serving. ment in order to make strategic decisions
in Table 2. Chi-square tests testing associa- Because multiple Chi-square tests (58) about visual product package design.25 Hill
tion with manufacturer were significant (p and ANOVA tests (8) were performed in and Tilley2 assert that product packaging is
< .05, df = 3, N = 122) for the following this study, Tables 2 and 3 also identify which more likely to affect impulse purchases of
techniques/features: image(s) of toy(s) or statistical tests remained significant after children more than other age group and it
other merchandise likely to attract children Bonferroni correction. This correction is is easy to see how these visual features (at-
(χ2 = 24.5); lure (χ2 = 24.1); advertises about extremely conservative (p < .0086 for the tractive children’s characters and a product
grains (χ2 = 21.7); advertises something as Chi-square tests) and protects against Type that appears ready-to-eat) could enhance the
“free” (χ2 = 23.1) animated character(s) I errors when multiple comparisons are impulsivity of children to choose a particular
anywhere on package (χ2 = 7.8); movie char- made. Because of the exploratory nature of cereal product. The current study did little to
acter/actor anywhere on package (χ2 = 11.0); this study, which we hope will lead to fur- assess the visual and design features of cereal
TV character/actor anywhere on package ther research and hypothesis formulation, packaging (e.g., color, graphics, photogra-
(χ2 = 8.4); “real” kid(s) anywhere on pack- we were not overly concerned about Type I phy, textual characteristics) and we suggest
age (χ2 = 11.5); answers requiring product errors in any of these comparisons. more research to understand the visual de-
purchase (χ2 = 21.7); adventure activity (χ2 = sign features that appeal to children and ef-
9.8); stories or story-completion (χ2 = 16.6); DISCUSSION fectively capture their attention. McNeal and
interesting facts or trivia (χ2 = 8.2); giveaway Product package design represents a Ji12 have studied children’s visual memory of
(χ2 = 7.8); qualified giveaway; (χ2 = 21.1) $100 billion industry that companies use to cereal brands and point out that children
chance to win (χ2 = 8.4); collectibles (χ2 = compete for customers.24 Largely through store memories in visual form. Thus, the
10.9); limited time offers (χ2 = 13.2); fund- visual communications using elements such impact of packaging is significant for chil-
raising opportunities (χ2 = 117.8); movie as color, graphics, and product characters, dren, perhaps more so than for adults, of
tie-in (χ2 = 13.9); TV show or network tie-in product packaging is designed to grab con- the brand’s message and personality. These
(χ2 = 12.2); toy or other merchandise tie-in sumers’ attention, introduce product con- authors also explain that the selling role of
(χ2 = 32.3); food product tie-in (χ2 = 9.4); tents and features, and encourage purchases packaging for children is enhanced through
other tie-in (χ2 = 38.9); identifies another during the experience of shopping.12 Our television advertising which prominently
commercial web site (χ2 = 10.5); identifies findings regarding cereal packaging are con- displays product packages. This serves to
a noncommercial Web site of interest to sistent with Goodwin’s1 assertion that food “deposit” and cue an image of the product in
kids (χ2 = 21.7); explicit encouragement to companies cleverly use product packaging the minds of children so that it will prompt
exercise or be physically active (χ2 = 10.0); to create visual appeal, attract children’s a visual memory of the product when the
and graphic identifying product as “healthy” attention, and build brand loyalty. Overall, young consumer is in the presence of the
or “nutritious (χ2 = 9.4). the cereal packages we analyzed contained a packaging in the supermarket.
Table 3 displays the promotion indices variety of promotion techniques and content Chapman et al.4 suggest that food com-
and nutrition characteristics for the cereal features designed to accomplish these pur- panies use product packaging as a vehicle to
packages examined in this study for total poses. One means of creating visual appeal offer sales promotion techniques to enhance
packages and according to manufacturer. and attracting children’s attention that we the marketing of these cereal products and
276 American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
Table 2. Types of Promotional Techniques and Content Features of Ready-To-Eat Cereal Packages (N = 122)
General
Kelloggs Post Quaker
All N=122 Mills
N=44 N=16 N=16
% N=46
% % %
(f) %
(f) (f) (f)
(f)
Front Panel Characteristics
Enlarged image(s) of the cereal 92.6 (113) 90.9 (40) 89.1 (41) 100.0 (16) 100.0 (16)
Cereal image in ready-to-eat fashion 88.5 (108) 84.1 (37) 89.1 (41) 87.5 (14) 100.0 (16)
Image(s) of toy(s) or other
merchandise likely to attract 29.5 (36) 54.6 (24) 15.2 (7) 31.3 (5) 0.0 (0)*†
children
Lure 31.2 (38) 54.6 (24) 13.0 (6) 43.8 (7) 6.3 (1)*†
Advertised as “sweet,” “sweetened,”
63.9 (78) 61.4 (27) 67.4 (31) 75.0 (12) 50.0 (8)
“sugary,” “frosted,” or similar
Advertised as fruity or fruit-flavored 22.9 (28) 27.3 (12) 21.7 (10) 25.0 (4) 12.5 (2)
Advertises other ingredients that
58.2 (71) 52.3 (23) 60.9 (28) 68.8 (11) 56.3 (9)
might attract kids
Advertises about grains 81.2 (99) 61.4 (27) 97.8 (45) 75.0 (12) 93.8 (15)*†
Advertises something as “free” 17.2 (21) 38.6 (17) 2.2 (1) 12.5 (2) 6.3 (1)*†
Premium Offers
Giveaway 7.4 (9) 15.9 (7) 2.2 (1) 6.3 (1) 0.0 (0)*
Qualified giveaway 18.0 (22) 38.6 (17) 2.2 (1) 12.5 (2) 12.5 (2)*
Special purchase offers 5.7 (7) 9.1 (4) 6.5 (3) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
Rebates or coupons 4.9 (6) 11.4 (5) 2.2 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
Code 17.2 (21) 22.7 (10) 10.9 (5) 18.8 (3) 18.8 (3)
Chance to win 7.4 (9) 5.6 (2) 2.2 (1) 18.8 (3) 18.8 (3)*
Qualified chance or eligibility 0.8 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 6.3 (1)
Collectibles 18.0 (22) 31.8 (14) 15.2 (7) 6.3 (1) 0.0 (0)*
Limited time offers 13.1 (16) 27.3 (12) 2.2 (1) 6.3 (1) 12.5 (2)*
Fund-raising opportunities 36.9 (45) 0.0 (0) 97.8 (45) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)*†
Cross-Promotions
Movie tie-in 18.9 (23) 34.1 (15) 8.7 (4) 25.0 (4) 0.0 (0)*
TV show or network tie-in 19.7 (24) 34.1 (15) 10.9 (5) 25.0 (5) 0.0 (0)*
Toy or other merchandise tie-in 25.4 (31) 54.6 (24) 4.4 (2) 12.5 (2) 18.8 (3)*†
Food product tie-in 25.4 (31) 22.7 (10) 19.6 (9) 18.8 (3) 56.3 (9)*
Other tie-in 70.5 (86) 61.4 (27) 97.8 (45) 68.8 (11) 18.8 (3)*†
Characters and Celebrities
Animated character(s) – anywhere 63.1 (77) 72.7 (32) 67.4 (31) 37.5 (6) 50.0 (8)*
Animated character(s) – front panel 50.0 (61) 47.7 (21) 58.7 (27) 31.3 (5) 50.0 (8)
Product ID character(s) – anywhere 50.0 (61) 52.3 (23) 52.2 (24) 31.3 (5) 56.3 (9)
Product ID character(s) – front panel 49.2 (60) 50.0 (22) 52.2 (24) 31.3 (5) 56.3 (9)
Movie character/actor – anywhere 17.2 (21) 29.6 (13) 8.7 (4) 25.0 (4) 0.0 (0)*
Movie character/actor – front panel 13.9 (17) 20.5 (9) 8.7 (4) 25.0 (4) 0.0 (0)
TV character/actor - anywhere 18.9 (23) 29.6 (13) 13.0 (6) 25.0 (4) 0.0 (0)*
American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5 277
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
Table 2. Types of Promotional Techniques and Content Features of Ready-To-Eat Cereal Packages (N = 122) con’t
General
Kelloggs Post Quaker
All N=122 Mills
N=44 N=16 N=16
% N=46
% % %
(f) %
(f) (f) (f)
(f)
TV character/actor – front panel 10.7 (13) 9.1 (4) 10.9 (5) 25.0 (4) 0.0 (0)
Sports star – anywhere 3.3 (4) 2.3 (1) 4.4 (2) 6.3 (1) 0.0 (0)
Sports star – front panel 2.5 (3) 0.0 (0) 4.4 (2) 6.3 (1) 0.0 (0)
Other celebrity – anywhere 1.6 (2) 4.6 (2) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
Other celebrity – front panel 0.8 (1) 2.3 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
“Real” kid(s) – anywhere 18.0 (22) 13.6 (6) 8.7 (4) 37.5 (6) 37.5 (6)*
Activity Features
Solving activities 50.0 (61) 54.6 (24) 52.2 (24) 31.3 (5) 50.0 (8)
Answers requiring product purchase 18.9 (23) 38.6 (17) 4.4 (2) 25.0 (4) 0.0 (0)*†
Answers requiring Web site visit 4.9 (6) 0.0 (0) 8.7 (4) 12.5 (2) 0.0 (0)
Adventure activity 14.8 (18) 15.9 (7) 10.9 (5) 0.0 (0) 37.5 (6)*
Stories or story-completion 9.8 (12) 2.3 (1) 23.9 (11) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)*†
Jokes 6.6 (8) 6.8 (3) 4.4 (2) 6.3 (1) 12.5 (2)
Interesting facts or trivia 55.7 (68) 63.6 (28) 63.0 (29) 31.3 (5) 37.5 (6)*
Information or fantasy about the
4.9 (6) 2.3 (1) 6.5 (3) 0.0 (0) 12.5 (2)
product’s manufacture
Tricks or magic 4.1 (5) 2.3 (1) 6.5 (3) 0.0 (0) 6.3 (1)
Sports tips 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
Recipes 8.2 (10) 13.6 (6) 6.5 (3) 0.0 (0) 6.3 (1)
Artwork, drawing, painting,
1.6 (2) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
coloring, etc
Web Sites
Directs to product/company Web site 99.2 (121) 100.0 (44) 100.0 (46) 100.0 (16) 93.8 (15)
Directs to another commercial site 15.6 (19) 27.3 (12) 15.2 (7) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)*
Identifies noncommercial site 25.4 (31) 13.6 (6) 50.0 (23) 12.5 (2) 0.0 (0)*†
Other Content/Feature
Association/sponsorship with
2.5 (3) 4.6 (2) 2.2 (1) 0.0 (0) 0.0 (0)
noncommercial organization
Explicit encouragement to exercise or
21.3 (26) 36.4 (16) 13.0 (6) 18.8 (3) 6.3 (1)*
be physically active
Implicit exercise/physical activity 24.6 (30) 27.3 (12) 28.3 (13) 6.3 (1) 25.0 (4)
Graphic identifying product as
86.9 (106) 81.8 (36) 95.7 (44) 93.8 (15) 68.8 (11)*
“healthy” or “nutritious”
Explicit encouragement of good
43.4 (53) 40.9 (18) 54.4 (25) 18.8 (3) 43.8 (7)
nutrition or healthy eating
Sugar or sugar derivatives listed as
one of first three ingredients by 100.0 (122) 100.0 (44) 100.0 (16) 100.0 (46) 100.0 (16)
weight
*Promotional techniques and content features identified differed significantly (p < .05, df =3) on a Chi-square test to determine difference between the cereal
manufactures.
† Technique or feature remained significant after Bonferroni correction (p < .05/58 = .0086) for multiple comparisons.
278 American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
Table 3. Nutrition Characteristics and Promotion Indices of Ready-to-Eat Cereals (N = 122)
Kelloggs General Mills Post Quaker
All N=122
N=44 N=46 N=16 N=16
M
M M M M
(SD)
(SD) (SD) (SD) (SD)
Nutrition Characteristics
Mean grams of sugar per serving 10.7 (4.0) 12.8 (3.5) 9.7 (3.6) 9.8 (4.0) 9.3 (3.2)* †
Mean calories per serving 130.2 (33.2) 142.5 (37.8) 130.6 (30.4) 119.3 (24.6) 127.5 (35.1)*
Mean % of calories per serving
33.8 (12.1) 37.1 (10.7) 30.5 (12.7) 32.8 (12.4) 30.6 (13.1)
from sugar
Promotion Indices
Characters/celebrities index 1.7 (1.2) 2.0 (1.3) 1.5 (1.2) 1.6 (1.5) 1.4 (0.6)
Cross promotions index 1.6 (1.2) 2.1 (1.4) 1.4 (0.9) 1.5 (1.4) 0.9 (0.7)* †
Premium offers index 1.3 (1.2) 1.6 (1.5) 1.4 (0.7) 0.7 (0.9) 0.7 (1.5)* †
Activities index 1.8 (1.3) 2.0 (1.4) 1.9 (1.3) 1.1 (1.4) 1.6 (1.1)
Total promotions index 6.4 (3.6) 7.8 (3.9) 6.2 (2.5) 4.9 (4.2) 4.7 (3.3)* †
*Variables differed significantly (p < .05, df =3) on a one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) test to determine difference between the cereal manufactures.
† Variable remained significant after Bonferroni correction (p < .05/8 = .00625) for multiple comparisons.
we found this to be the case for cereal brands network (19.7%) and one-fifth with a toy or will win” are not likely to dissuade children
targeting children. The use of product iden- other merchandise (25.4%) or another food from their expectations of winning. Also,
tification characters, also known as branded product (25.4%). There has been much writ- 7.4% of the packages offered a giveaway
spokescharacters (e.g., Tony the Tiger, Tou- ten recently about the use of cross-selling by advertising that the package contains
can Sam), movie and movie character tie-ins and tie-in techniques by food companies something free inside (toy, candy, or other
(e.g., Shrek, Spiderman, Harry Potter), toy to further the reach of brands by building merchandise) and 18.4% offered a “quali-
tie-ins, celebrity endorsements, and premi- brand awareness and brand loyalty for food fied giveaway,” in which the offer of getting
ums and collectibles (e.g., dolls, movie ac- products targeted to kids.9, 23, 27 Using char- something “free” required purchasing the
tion figures, trading cards) are promotional acters from movies and TV shows blurs the product so that qualifications such as filling
strategies that television commercials have lines between entertainment and advertising out an order form (found inside or on the
used to sell food to children.9, 23 Promotional in the minds of children and there is some box), obtaining UPCs from specially marked
characters can become the living symbol of a evidence that children’s product choices packages, or mailing in proof of purchase to
product or brand and tend to be particularly may be influenced by popular cartoon get the “free” object.
effective with children in developing product characters.27 It was common for cereal boxes to of-
preference.26 Product ID characters/branded A characteristic of 7.4% of the pack- fer activities to engage children. The most
spokescharacters extend television advertis- ages was the offer of a chance to win some- common was offering interesting facts or
ing beyond the television commercials into thing, usually in the form of a contest or trivia (55.7%) and solving activities (50.0%),
a marketing mix that includes other forms sweepstake. Shimp describes contests and such as puzzles, word games, word searches,
of marketing including product packaging, sweepstakes as a popular form of marketing matching activities, finding activities, mazes,
Internet advertising, and sponsored events. for a company because they are relatively brainteasers, quizzes, and riddles. Acquisition
Our results support other research that food inexpensive, simple to execute, and increase of the answers to solving activities required a
companies have forged partnerships with purchases of a product.28 Contests and product purchase on 18.9% of the packages
movie and TV show producers, toy store sweepstakes may be particularly appealing to or a visit to a brand or company web site
companies, and other media in cross-selling young children because of a developmental on 4.9% of the packages. As expected, the
promotions. Approximately one-fifth of the perspective characterized by unrealistic ex- activities on packages were largely designed
product packages had a cross-promotion or pectations about their chances of winning. to promote the brand and increase brand
tie-in with a movie (18.9%) or TV show or Disclaimers such as “many will enter and few awareness. A portion of the activities offered
American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5 279
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
on packages is content that may be construed cereals in this study listed sugar or a sugar any other cereal maker.
as educational content but perhaps may be derivative as one of the first three ingredients A limitation of this study is that the pack-
more accurately conceptualized as Moore’s by weight and on average the cereals con- ages examined only represents a given point
characterization of “advercation” in which tained 10.7 grams of sugar and 130 calories in time, and may not necessarily represent
educational information is embedded in an per serving and 33% of calories per serving the product packaging features of the cereals
advertising message.29 were from sugar. at other points in time or over a longer time
We used the term of “lure” to describe A major outcome of this study were period. It is likely that product packaging
when on the front panel of a cereal box, findings showing differences in product changes frequently and the various brands
consumers were referred to the back or packaging characteristics by manufactur- change promotion techniques and content
other panels for more information (e.g., ers. Kellogg, who is the market leader in features over time and changes might be fre-
“see back for details,” “solve puzzle on back,” the overall cereal,14 included more total quent. Even though the cereals represented
“continue the adventure/journey on back”). promotions and cross-promotions than all of the cereals at three supermarkets and
About one-third of the packages (31.2%) the other manufacturers, and that Kellogg brands that are nationally distributed, it is
used this technique to engage children in and General Mills included more premium unlikely that all the cereal products pro-
features of the product package. Another offer than Post and Quaker. Along this line duced by the four manufactures were found
“lure” that all but two of the cereal pack- more “lures,” giveaways, qualified giveaways, at these three supermarkets. Further research
ages included was the directing of children collectibles, movie tie-ins, TV show/network should consider including cereals represent-
to a brand or company web site (e.g., “hey tie-ins, toy or other merchandise tie-ins, ing a wider geographic area and a greater
kids we are on the web at …,” “for more animated characters, TV characters, movie number of supermarket chains. Another
fun go to …”). These web sites, designed characters, other celebrities, interesting facts limitation is that the research was restricted
as cyber venues for marketing brands, are or trivia, images of toys on front panels, and to content analysis of the cereal packages.
presented to children as entertainment explicit encouragements of exercise/physical Further research should consider the use
sites (“virtual amusement parks”) contain- activity were found on Kellogg cereals than of child and parent subjects and measure
ing online games and activities with “cool” on cereals produced by other manufacturers. such aspects as awareness, perceptions, and
characters and attention-grabbing visual/ Post and Quaker were more likely to include other influences related to product packag-
sound effects. These sites blur distinctions chances to win (contests/sweepstakes) and ing promotion techniques and features.
between entertainment and advertising, lure include pictures of “real” kids on pack- Marketing research studies frequently use
children because of entertaining games and ages. Quaker cereals were more likely than focus groups to measure impacts of product
activities, and are replete with brand-related other manufacturers to include adventure packaging on target populations.2, 12 This
images and themes for the products being activities. General Mills cereals were more research methodology has potential also
advertised.30 likely to advertise about grains, and include for health and nutrition education studies
We found that 21.3% of packages had graphics identifying products as healthy designed for extending understanding of
explicit messages (wording or text) en- or nutritious, other tie-ins, and noncom- child marketing strategies, such as product
couraging children to be physically active mercial web sites of interest to kids. Price14 packaging features from a health and nutri-
and 24.6% of packages had “implicit” comments that the four cereal manufactures tion education standpoint.
messages about exercise/physical activity, who dominate the breakfast cereal market
which showed a character exercising, playing rarely compete with each other on the basis TRANSLATION TO HEALTH
sports, or engaging in other physical activity. of price, instead using “non-price strategies” EDUCATION PRACTICE
This is interesting in light of the suggestion such as advertising and promotions to dif- Research addressing food product pack-
that the food industry deflects attention ferentiate similar cereals and try to create aging is typically conducted by marketing
from its possible role in the obesity epidemic consumer loyalty to particular brands. On specialists interested in broadening the
by emphasizing physical activity in market- the other hand, private-label cereals, known effectiveness of packaging as a marketing
ing messages.31, 32 Also, most of packages as store brands are not heavily promoted or tool and food scientists interested in ways
(86.9%) contained a graphic identifying the advertised, and compete by selling at prices of enhancing or preserving product quality
product as healthy or nutritious and 43.4% significantly lower than the branded cereals. through packaging. However, we found only
contained explicit encouragement of good Our findings showing differentiation in type one previous study in the health and nutri-
nutrition or healthy eating. and amount of promotional techniques, and tion literature focusing specifically on food
It is no secret that the cereals targeting in general greater use of promotions by the product packaging.4 This is an important
children lining the cereal aisle in supermar- market leader (Kellogg), is probably reflec- area of food advertising and marketing that
kets are predominately sweet in which sugar tive of the fact that Kellogg spends more on appears to deserve greater research emphasis
is the main or major ingredient. All of the advertising and marketing its cereals than in helping health/nutrition educators better
280 American Journal of Health Education — September/October 2008, Volume 39, No. 5
Randy Page, Katie Montgomery, Andrea Ponder, and Amanda Richard
understand influences on children’s eating to making decisions about purchasing food ington, D.C.: National Academies of Science,
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