ERIC EJ795855: Media and Children's Aggression, Fear, and Altruism

2008·0.57 MB·English

by  ERIC

Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear, and Altruism
Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear,
and Altruism
Barbara J. Wilson
Summary
Noting that the social and emotional experiences of American children today often heavily
involve electronic media, Barbara Wilson takes a close look at how exposure to screen media
affects children’s well-being and development. She concludes that media influence on children
depends more on the type of content that children find attractive than on the sheer amount of
time they spend in front of the screen.
Wilson begins by reviewing evidence on the link between media and children’s emotions. She
points out that children can learn about the nature and causes of different emotions from
watching the emotional experiences of media characters and that they often experience empa-
thy with those characters. Although research on the long-term effects of media exposure on
children’s emotional skill development is limited, a good deal of evidence shows that media
exposure can contribute to children’s fears and anxieties. Both fictional and news programming
can cause lasting emotional upset, though the themes that upset children differ according to a
child’s age.
Wilson also explores how media exposure affects children’s social development. Strong evidence
shows that violent television programming contributes to children’s aggressive behavior. And
a growing body of work indicates that playing violent video games can have the same harmful
effect. Yet if children spend time with educational programs and situation comedies targeted to
youth, media exposure can have more prosocial effects by increasing children’s altruism, coop-
eration, and even tolerance for others. Wilson also shows that children’s susceptibility to media
influence can vary according to their gender, their age, how realistic they perceive the media to
be, and how much they identify with characters and people on the screen. She concludes with
guidelines to help parents enhance the positive effects of the media while minimizing the risks
associated with certain types of content.
www.futureofchildren.org
Barbara J. Wilson is the Paul C. Friedland Professorial Scholar and head of the Department of Communication at the University of Il-
linois at Urbana-Champaign. She is grateful to Kristin Drogos for her research assistance and to Craig Anderson and other participants
at the Future of Children conference for their insightful comments.
VOL. 18 / NO. 1 / SPRING 2008 87
Barbara J. Wilson
Children today live in a world In this article I review the research evidence
where many of their experi- regarding how electronic media influence
ences are mediated by screen children’s emotional and social well-being.
technologies. Small children I begin by exploring the role the media can
are likely to feel some of their play in children’s affective or emotional
first fears as they watch a scary movie or development. I show how children can learn
television program, feel some of their earliest about the nature and function of emotions
non-familial attachments as they view a from the media, and I summarize research
favorite media character, and even experi- on how electronic media contribute to the
ence the beginnings of emotional empathy as development of empathy in children. Next, I
they follow the adventures of a well-liked address the questions of whether the media
media protagonist. Because American can elevate children’s fears and anxieties.
children spend so much time with the media, Moving away from emotions, I then explore
much of their social life takes place while the effect of media on children’s social
they sit in front of a television or a computer development. In particular, I examine how
screen or concentrate on an iPod or a cell repeated exposure to electronic media can
phone. In fact, children under the age of six influence children’s moral development. I
spend more time watching television than also review evidence about how the media
they do playing outdoors.1 Historically, the can affect children’s tendency to behave in a
United States has reached a point where prosocial manner with others and also their
most of children’s social experiences no tendency to act aggressively in social situa-
longer consist of face-to-face interactions tions. I then sum up the positive and negative
with other people. effects of exposure to media on children’s
well-being, commenting on considerations
Children develop their emotional and social that make youth susceptible to media’s influ-
capabilities through a complex process. To ence and on ways they can be shielded from
participate effectively in their culture, they harmful effects. I conclude by discussing
must acquire the norms, rules, and values the important role parents can play in their
that will enable them to form connections children’s media experiences.
and function in families, peer groups, and
the broader society. They learn about emo- Two themes emerge in this review. First,
tions and about relationships from parents, electronic media can have both positive and
friends, teachers, and siblings. They also negative effects on children’s development. It
bring their own personalities, temperaments, is thus simplistic to argue that the media are
and cognitive abilities to each social situation. detrimental or valuable to children. Much of
Electronic media too play a role in children’s the effect depends on the content to which
socialization. Television programs, movies, children are exposed. Some media messages
and even the Internet provide children with can teach children positive, prosocial lessons,
a window into popular culture. Children can while others can lead children to be fearful or
come to appreciate norms and standards of even to behave antisocially. What children are
conduct by watching social actors in fictional watching onscreen makes a crucial difference,
stories and can even experience emotional perhaps even more than how much time they
and social situations in a vicarious way spend in front of that screen. Second, not all
through the media. children are influenced by the media in the
88 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear, and Altruism
same way. A child’s age or developmental program.5 By the time they reach age eight,
level makes a difference, for example. In however, children, especially girls, are more
some situations, younger children are more likely to mention characters’ affective states
susceptible to media influence than older when retelling a televised story.6Older

children are. But older children and teens are children also begin to understand television
certainly not immune. In fact, media content characters’ more complex emotions, such as
that is complex or highly abstract is likely to jealousy.7 Like their younger counterparts,
affect only those with more sophisticated older children’s recall of affect is higher if
cognitive skills who can comprehend the they perceive the program as realistic.8
message. A child’s gender, race, temperament,
and home life also come into play. Through-
out this article, I will highlight which groups Developmental psychologists
or types of children are more susceptible to
and media scholars alike have
media’s influence on emotional and social
development. argued that screen media play
a crucial role in children’s
Media and Emotional Development
Children need emotional skills to form emotional development.
relationships with others. Indeed, the capac-
ity to recognize and interpret emotions in
others is a fundamental building block of But do emotional portrayals teach children
social competence.2 Developmental psychol- about emotions? Surprisingly little evidence
ogists and media scholars alike have argued on this subject exists. One early study found
that screen media play a crucial role in that regular viewing of Sesame Street helped
children’s emotional development.3 Yet few preschoolers learn to recognize emotions and
studies address this larger issue, in part emotional situations, though the preschoolers
because researchers have given so much learned more about traditional school-based
empirical attention instead to media’s impact content than they did about emotional
on maladaptive or antisocial behaviors. content.9 In recent years, Sesame Street has
incorporated emotions and emotional coping
Learning about Emotions into its curricular goals. Several storylines
One of the first skills of emotional compe- during the 1980s, for example, focused on
tence is the ability to recognize emotions in birth, death, and marriage. In 2001, a series
others. Research indicates that preschoolers of episodes focused on a hurricane that hit
are able to identify and differentiate basic New York City and destroyed Big Bird’s
emotions such as happiness, sadness, and fear home. Big Bird and his friends spent consid-
experienced by television characters.4 Very erable time dealing with this emotional issue
young children, however, struggle to recog- and rebuilding his nest. Later that year,
nize more complex emotions. They tend to Sesame Street tried to help preschoolers cope
remember emotions experienced by people with the September 11 terrorist attacks on
better than those experienced by Muppets or New York and Washington by featuring a
animated characters, and they do not neces- story about a grease fire in Hooper’s Store,
sarily focus on emotions of the characters which required the help of brave firefighters
when retelling the narrative of a television to save people. Scholars have conducted no
VOL. 18 / NO. 1 / SPRING 2008 89
Barbara J. Wilson
programmatic research, however, to ascertain One piece of experimental evidence—
the long-term effects of watching such content research involving a randomly assigned
on preschoolers’ emotional development. control group—demonstrates that children
can transfer to real life the emotional lessons
Researchers have found that older children they learn from TV.11 In the study, elementary
can learn about emotions from television school children from two age groups (kinder-
content. In a series of studies, Sandra Calvert garten through second grade and third
and Jennifer Kotler explored how second through fifth grade) watched a popular family
sitcom whose main plot featured one of two
through sixth graders’ acquired different types
negative emotions: the fear felt by a young
of information from their favorite programs.10
character about earthquakes or the anger felt
Samples of children recruited from schools
by a young character who fell while trying to
across the country were invited to visit a
learn how to ride a bicycle. Half the children
specially designed website to report on what
in the study (the control group) watched the
they had learned from particular television
main plot only, and half watched a version
episodes they had recently viewed. The
where the main plot was accompanied by
researchers found that children do remember
a humorous subplot. The presence of the
lessons and that they can clearly articulate
subplot interfered with the ability of younger
them. When asked about programs rated as
children to understand the emotional event
educational/informative (E/I), children
in the main plot, but not with the ability of
reported learning socio-emotional lessons
older children. This finding is consistent with
more often than informational or cognitive
other researchers’ insights into developmen-
lessons. In other words, the educational
tal differences in children’s ability to draw
programs taught them more about emotions,
inferences across scenes that are disconnected
such as overcoming fears and labeling differ-
in time.12
ent feelings, and about interpersonal skills,
such as respect, sharing, and loyalty, than
about science, history, or culture. Girls
When asked about programs
learned more from these programs than boys
rated as educational/informa-
did. This gender difference was attributed to
the fact that girls reported liking such pro- tive (E/I), children reported
grams more and feeling more involved while
learning socio-emotional
viewing them. Finally, children learned more
lessons more often than
of these socio-emotional lessons from their
favorite educational (E/I rated) than from informational or cognitive
their favorite entertainment-based programs. lessons.
Because the researchers did not disentangle
emotional from social lessons, it is difficult to
ascertain which is more prominently featured No matter what their age, children who
in E/I programming and, in turn, in children’s viewed the humorous subplot tended to mini-
subsequent memories. Nor did the study mize the seriousness of the negative emotion.
assess whether this learning persisted over It may be, then, that the humor in situation
time and more crucially, whether the lessons comedies impairs children’s ability to learn
carried over into real life in some way. about negative emotional issues from such
90 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear, and Altruism
content. The humorous subplot also affected effectively than do entertainment-based pro-
the children’s perceptions of emotion in real grams. Some experimental evidence suggests
life. Children who viewed the earthquake that children can transfer what they learn
episode with the humorous subplot judged from emotional portrayals on television to their
earthquakes in real life as less severe than did beliefs about emotional events in real life.
those who viewed the episode without the This type of learning is greatest among those
subplot. This pattern was particularly strong who perceive television as highly realistic.
among those who perceived the family sitcom Once again, the content of the program mat-
as highly realistic. ters. In one experiment, the simple insertion
of a humorous subplot distorted children’s
The study demonstrates that a single exposure perceptions of a negative emotional event in
to a television episode can alter children’s a program and also caused children to mini-
ideas about emotions in real life and is consis- mize the seriousness of a similar event in real
tent with the idea that media portrayals can life. No research as yet addresses the long-
influence a child’s mental representation, or term consequences of repeated exposure to
schema, for emotional events. (A schema is electronic media on emotional development.
an organized structure of knowledge about It may be that children who are heavy viewers
a topic or event that is stored in memory of, say, situation comedies develop a distorted
and helps a person assimilate new informa- perception of emotional problems as trivial
tion.13) Scholars have theorized that people’s and easily solved in thirty minutes or less. On
schemata for emotions include information the other hand, regular viewers of E/I pro-
about expressive cues, situational causes, and grams may learn more about the intricacies
rules about how to display each emotion.14 of different types of emotional experiences
Research indicates that children use schemata because such portrayals are not routinely
to help them interpret what they encounter in clouded in humor. Longitudinal studies—
the media.15 In turn, media content can con- those that follow a cohort of individuals over
tribute to a child’s schemata. As an example of a long period—are required to fully explore
this interplay, one study found that children these issues.
who perceived television as highly realistic
had mental schemata for real-world occupa- Emotional Empathy
tions such as nursing and policing that were Learning to feel empathy or share emotions
similar to TV portrayals of such jobs.16 with others is part of what makes children
effective social agents. Empathic children are
In summary, there is surprisingly little evi- more sensitive to others and are more likely
dence that electronic media affect emotional to engage in socially desirable behavior in
development. Early work demonstrates that groups.17 Empathy is typically construed as
regular viewing of Sesame Street can help a developmentally acquired skill, dependent
preschoolers develop a fuller understanding on a child’s ability to recognize what emotion
of emotions and their causes. More recent the other person is feeling and to role-take,
research indicates that elementary school or imagine the self in that person’s place.18
children, especially girls, can learn social- Infants often respond to the crying of other
emotional lessons from television. The type of babies by crying themselves.19 But this emo-
content viewed makes a difference. Programs tional contagion is different from empathy,
rated as E/I teach emotional lessons more though it may be a precursor to it.
VOL. 18 / NO. 1 / SPRING 2008 91
Barbara J. Wilson
Although children clearly share experiences likely to share the emotions of characters
with media characters, few researchers have similar to themselves, presumably because it
studied this phenomenon. One early experi- is easier to role-take with such characters.
ment confirms that empathy is a develop- Thus, movies or television programs that
mental skill.20 In the study, children from feature younger characters in emotional
two age groups (three through five and nine situations that are familiar and seem authentic
through eleven) watched a movie clip of should produce the strongest empathy in
either a threatening stimulus or a character’s youth. But all of these insights are derived
fear in response to a threatening stimulus from short-term studies. No longitudinal
that was not shown directly. Younger children studies of children’s media exposure over time
were less physiologically aroused and less address its effect on empathy. Nevertheless, a
frightened by the character’s fear than by the recent survey of adults’ lifetime media habits
fear-provoking stimulus. The older children, is suggestive. In the study, adults reported on
however, responded emotionally to both ver- their exposure to various types of fiction
sions of the movie. The preschoolers did not (romance, suspense novels, thrillers, science
lack empathy because they failed to recognize fiction, fantasy, domestic and foreign fiction)
the nature of the character’s emotion—the and nonfiction (science, political commentary,
vast majority did recognize the character’s business, philosophy, psychology, self-help)
fear. But they were less likely than the older print media.24 They also filled out a question-
children to engage in role-taking with the naire measuring social skills and various facets
character, a skill that other studies have found of empathy, including perspective-taking.
to emerge around age eight and increase dur- Even after controlling for age, IQ, and
ing the elementary school years.21 English fluency, researchers found that
readers who were more exposed to narrative
Besides their developmental stage, other fiction were more empathic and had higher
characteristics of children seem to encourage general social abilities. Furthermore, readers
empathy with media portrayals. Children, of more fiction became more deeply absorbed
for example, are more likely to share the in stories. In contrast, readers who were more
emotions of a same-sex than an opposite-sex exposed to nonfiction were less empathic. In
character.22 They are also more likely to expe- order to untangle definitively whether
rience empathy if they perceive the media empathic people seek out fiction, or whether
content as realistic.23 fictional stories help teach empathy, or
whether both are true, researchers will have
To summarize, a few experimental studies to track children’s media habits over time.
show that children engage in emotional
sharing with well-liked characters. Because Media, Fear, and Anxiety
empathy requires the ability to identify others’ Children can not only witness and share
emotions and to role-take, older children are emotions experienced by media characters,
more likely to share the emotional experi- but also respond directly to emotionally
ences of on-screen characters than younger charged events depicted in the media. Much
children are. Once again, content matters. of the research on the media’s capacity to
Children are more likely to experience evoke children’s emotions has focused
empathy with plot lines and characters that narrowly on its ability to arouse their fears and
they perceive as realistic. They are also more anxieties. Recent movies such as Monster
92 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear, and Altruism
House, Corpse Bride, and Harry Potter and before bedtime had greater difficulty falling
the Order of the Phoenix are just a few asleep, were more anxious at bedtime, and
examples of horror-filled content that is had higher rates of nightmares.29 It is difficult
targeted to children. Classic Disney films such to draw firm causal conclusions from these
as Bambi, Snow White, and The Lion King studies, which simply correlate television
can also be upsetting to very young children. watching and anxiety, but it seems more likely
Even programs not designed to be scary that heavy watching would trigger fearfulness
sometimes cause fear among younger age than that skittish children would seek out
groups. The Incredible Hulk, for example, a television before bedtime.
television series featuring a large, green-
skinned creature that helps people, was so
Research shows that
frightening to preschoolers that Mister
Rogers’ Neighborhood screened a special most preschoolers and
segment to explain the Hulk’s motives and
elementary school children
make-up to young viewers.
have experienced short-
Research shows that most preschoolers and
term fright reactions
elementary school children have experienced
short-term fright reactions to the media.25 to the media.
Furthermore, many of these children report
that they regret having seen a particular
scary program or movie.26 In one nationally Using a different approach, Kristen Harrison
representative survey, 62 percent of parents and Joanne Cantor interviewed a sample of
of two- to seventeen-year-olds agreed that 150 college students at two universities about
their children had “sometimes become scared their memories of intense fears related to the
that something they saw in a movie or on TV media.30 A full 90 percent of the students were
might happen to them.”27 The more pressing able to describe in detail a movie or television
question concerns the long-term ramifica- program that had frightened them in a lasting
tions of such emotional reactions. way. Although most had seen the show during
childhood or adolescence, 26 percent reported
Long-Term Fears and Phobias still experiencing “residual anxiety” as an adult.
Evidence is growing that the fear induced in When questioned about long-term effects,
children by the media is sometimes severe more than half of the sample (52 percent)
and long-lasting. A survey of more than reported disturbances in sleep or eating after
2,000 elementary and middle school chil- seeing the TV show or movie. In addition, 36
dren revealed that heavy television viewing percent said they avoided real-life situations
was associated with self-reported symptoms similar to the events depicted in the media, 22
of anxiety, depression, and post-traumatic percent reported being mentally preoccupied
stress.28 Watching more than six hours of or obsessed with the frightening content, and
television a day put children at greater risk 17 percent said they avoided similar movies or
for scoring in the clinical range of these television programs. The researchers also
trauma symptoms. A survey of nearly 500 found that the younger the child was at the
parents of elementary school children found time of the exposure, the longer the fear
that the children who watched television just lasted.
VOL. 18 / NO. 1 / SPRING 2008 93
Barbara J. Wilson
The media content that upsets children varies horror, and disorganized or agitated behavior.
by age. Preschoolers and younger elementary The children in the study lived 100 miles away
school children (two to seven years of age) from the event, had no direct exposure to it,
are most frightened by characters and events and knew no one affected by the bombing. Yet
that look or sound scary.31 Creatures such as almost 20 percent reported that the event
ghosts, witches, and monsters are likely to continued to cause them to have difficulty
provoke fear in younger children; even char- functioning at school or at home, or both, two
acters that are benign but visually grotesque, years later. Moreover, children who had
such as E.T., can be upsetting to a pre- watched, listened to, or read more news about
schooler, much to the surprise of many par- the bombing reported greater symptoms of
ents. This pattern is consistent with younger post-traumatic stress.
children’s perceptual dependence, their
tendency to fixate on visual and auditory cues
rather than more conceptual information According to cultivation
such as the motives of a character.32 Older
theory, people who watch a
elementary school children (eight to twelve
years of age) are frightened more by scenes great deal of television will
involving injury, violence, and personal
come to perceive the real
harm.33 Older children also are more respon-
world as being consistent with
sive than younger children are to events in
the media that seem realistic or could happen
what they see on the screen.
in real life.34 This heightened responsiveness
is consistent with their more mature under-
standing of the distinction between fantasy Researchers have reported similar findings
and reality.35 Several studies have found, for in the wake of the September 11 terrorist
example, that older children or tweens (age attacks. One nationally representative survey
eight to twelve) are more frightened by tele- of parents found that 35 percent of Ameri-
vision news than are younger children.36 can children experienced one or more stress
symptoms, such as difficulty falling asleep or
Catastrophic news events, in particular, have trouble concentrating, after the attacks and
raised concerns among many parents in that 47 percent were worried about their own
recent years. Round-the-clock coverage of safety or the safety of loved ones.39 Children
child abductions, war, terrorism, and even who watched more TV coverage of the attacks
hurricanes has made it difficult to shield had significantly greater stress symptoms.
young children from graphic news stories.
Indeed, the content of television news has In general, children’s fear reactions to the
become more violent and graphic over time.37 news are intensified if they live in close
geographic proximity to the tragedy.40 Fear
Several studies have found that exposure to is also greater among children who closely
news increases children’s fear and anxiety. One identify with the victims of tragic events.41
study examined sixth graders suffering from Finally, older elementary school children
post-traumatic stress disorder two years after tend to be more frightened by these types
the Oklahoma City bombing.38 The disorder is of news stories than do younger children.42
characterized by intense fear, helplessness, Older children feel heightened fear partly
94 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Media and Children’s Aggression, Fear, and Altruism
because they watch more news than young even post-traumatic stress in children. But
children do.43 They are also more likely to be although most of the longitudinal evidence
able to comprehend news stories, which often pertains to news events, one recent study sug-
contain abstract terminology, such as terror- gests that television viewing in general may
ism and abduction, and fewer visuals than be linked to children’s fear. Jeffrey Johnson
fictional, entertainment media content does.44 and several colleagues followed the television
But as with fictional content, developmental viewing habits and sleep problems of a cohort
differences help explain which types of news of adolescents at age fourteen, sixteen, and
stories children find frightening. Although twenty-two.48 Those who watched three or
children under the age of eight are less likely more hours of television daily at age fourteen
to be scared of the news, when they are, it is were significantly more likely than lighter
most often in response to stories with graphic viewers to have trouble falling asleep and to
and intense visual images, such as natural wake frequently at night at ages sixteen and
disasters and accidents.45 Older children are twenty-two. The link held true even after
more likely to be upset by stories involving researchers controlled for previous sleep
crime and violence.46 problems, psychiatric disorders, and parental
education, income, and neglect. And the link
To summarize, a moderate amount of evi- ran only one way: sleep problems in the early
dence links media exposure, both to fictional years did not predict greater television view-
content and to the news, with children’s ing in later years. The study, however, did not
fears and anxieties. Cross-sectional snapshot- assess what the teens were watching on tele-
in-time studies indicate that most children vision. Clearly, more longitudinal studies are
have experienced fright, sometimes intense needed on how exposure to different types
and enduring, in response to media content. of fictional and nonfictional media content
Experimental studies corroborate that the affects children’s fears and worries.
types of content that upset children vary as
a function of age. Children under eight are Cultivating a Fear of Victimization
most often frightened by fantasy portrayals Media can also contribute to long-term fear
that involve gruesome or ugly-looking char- through cultivation—its influence on people’s
acters. Children older than eight are more conceptions of social reality. According to cul-
upset by realistic portrayals, including the tivation theory, people who watch a great deal
news, involving personal injury and violence. of television will come to perceive the real
Fear reactions differ by gender as well. Girls world as being consistent with what they see
tend to experience more fear from media on the screen.49 Cultivation theory has been
than boys do, especially as they get older.47 applied to many types of reality beliefs, but
But gender differences are more pronounced much of the focus has been on perceptions
for self-reported fear than for physical mea- about violence.
sures of fear, such as facial expressions. Thus,
gender differences may reflect socialization Researchers’ preoccupation with violence is
differences among girls and boys. partly owing to the prevalence of aggression
in American media. Large-scale studies of
Longitudinal evidence also links media and television programming, for example, have
fear. Heavy exposure to major catastrophes in documented that nearly two out of three
the news is associated with intense fear and programs contain some physical violence.50
VOL. 18 / NO. 1 / SPRING 2008 95
Barbara J. Wilson
Moreover, a typical hour of television features controlled for grade level, gender, exposure
an average of six different violent exchanges to fictional media violence, and overall TV
between perpetrators and victims. The extent viewing.57 Another survey found that children
of violence in programs targeted to children and teens who were heavy viewers of the
is even higher; 70 percent of children’s shows news were more frightened by high-profile
contain violence, with an average of fourteen child kidnapping stories such as the Eliza-
violent interchanges an hour.51 beth Smart case than were light viewers of
the news.58 Heavy viewers of the news were
How does all this violence affect people’s per- also personally more worried about being
ceptions of reality? Studies have found that abducted than light viewers were, even after
frequent viewers of television, no matter what researchers controlled for the child’s age and
their age, see the world as a more dangerous gender as well as for parental news viewing
place and are more frightened of being a vic- and parental fear of abduction. Children’s
tim of violence than infrequent viewers are.52 fear of kidnapping was not related to overall
Most of the evidence is correlational, but a television exposure, only to news viewing.
few experiments using control groups show
that repeated exposure to television violence Kidnapping is one news topic that the media
increases people’s fear of victimization.53 tend to sensationalize. Since the late 1990s,
Combining all the evidence, Michael Morgan the number of stories about child kidnap-
and James Shanahan conducted a meta- ping in the news has been on the rise.59 Yet
analysis of published studies on cultivation kidnapping constitutes less than 2 percent
that combined all the individual studies to get of all violent crimes in the United States tar-
an aggregate numerical effect size. According geted at children under the age of eighteen.60
to scientific convention, an effect size of 0.10 Moreover, children are far more likely to be
is considered small, 0.30 is medium, and 0.50 abducted by someone they know than by a
is large.54 Morgan and Shanahan found that stranger. In 1997, for example, 40 percent of
television had a small but statistically signifi- juvenile kidnappings were perpetrated by a
cant effect on people’s perceptions of vio- family member, 27 percent by an acquain-
lence (r = .10).55 The effect was slightly larger tance, and 24 percent by a stranger.61 A very
for adults than for children, but because small fraction of abductions are what the FBI
fewer studies involved younger age groups, calls “stereotypical” kidnapping cases involv-
this finding may not be reliable. ing a child taken overnight and transported
over some distance to be kept or killed.
Early cultivation research focused on the Despite these statistics, there has been a rash
sheer number of hours that people watch of stories in the news about stranger kidnap-
television, based on the assumption that pings. Dramatic programs such as NBC’s
violent content is formulaic and pervasive Kidnapped and USA’s America’s Most Wanted
regardless of what is viewed. More recently, also focus on abduction. These fictional and
scholars have begun looking at particular nonfictional stories may attract viewers, but
types of genres, especially the news.56 In they can also fuel an exaggerated fear of vio-
one study, elementary school children who lence in young children.
frequently watched the news believed there
were more murders in a nearby city than did To summarize, researchers have found
infrequent viewers, even when researchers modest evidence that electronic media can
96 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN