ERIC EJ795179: Higher Education Challenges in Developing Countries: The Case of Vietnam

2004·0.06 MB·English

by  ERIC

Diane E. Oliver 3
Higher Education Challenges
in Developing Countries:
The Case of Vietnam
Diane E. Oliver
Texas Tech University
Abstract: This review of literature was written in preparation for
conducting a research study on the U.S. community college
system as a potential model for developing countries, and using
Vietnam as a specific case. It is divided into four sections: (a) a
discussion of the purposes of higher education (HE), (b) an exami-
nation of problems faced by the HE systems in developing coun-
tries, (c) a description of Vietnam’s HE context, and (d) perspectives
concerning U.S. community colleges. The literature shows that
problems experienced across developing countries are representa-
tive of those faced by higher education in Vietnam. Inadequate
access, funding, teacher salaries and qualifications, pedagogical
materials, facility conditions, institutional autonomy, and quality
assurance mechanisms are all difficult issues that must be ad-
dressed. Recommendations are discussed as thematic concepts,
including diversification, establishing links between industry and
HE institutions, and providing access to adult learners.
This review of literature was written in preparation for conducting a
research study on the U.S. community college system as a potential
Address all correspondence to: Diane E. Oliver, The Vietnam Center, Texas Tech University, Box
41045, Lubbock, TX 79409-1045. E-mail: [email protected]
International Journal of Educational Policy, Research, & Practice, Volume 5, Number 2, Summer 2004.
ISSN 1528-3534; Copyright 2004 by Caddo Gap Press; All rights of reproduction reserved.
4 Higher Education Challenges
model for developing countries, and using Vietnam as a specific case. It
is divided into four sections: (a) a discussion of the purposes of higher
education (HE), (b) an examination of problems faced by the HE systems
in developing countries, (c) a description of Vietnam’s HE context, and (d)
perspectives concerning U.S. community colleges.
Although literature reviews normally include an assessment of prior
research on and around the researcher’s topic, the absence of such
studies precluded using this approach. The lack of published research
may be attributed to three circumstances. First, “in the poorest coun-
tries, few if any, universities or other institutions exist with research
capabilities in education. . . .Under such conditions, research information
is not a priority in education management” (Adams, Kee, & Lin, 2001, p.
221). Second, Sloper and Can (1995) confirmed “ remarkably little has
been published internationally about higher education in Vietnam” (p.3).
Finally, based upon the researcher’s review of articles, and discussions
with U.S. community college professionals who have some experience in
Vietnam, the focus of visiting U.S. experts has been on the feasibility of
implementing a U.S. community college model, not on researching its
suitability for Vietnam.
Developing Countries and Higher Education
The purpose of this section is to gain an understanding of the context
in which a U.S. community college model would have to operate were it
in a developing country. The primary focus is on identifying and analyzing
problems experienced in the higher education sector of developing
countries and to present some conceptual remedies. But it seems prudent
to evaluate first the fundamental and sometimes contentious question of
“why higher education” when developing countries have not yet met their
needs for primary and secondary education?
The purpose of HE
The World Bank, Organization of Economic Cooperation (OECD),
United Nations, and other major donors view HE through the lens of
human capital theory (Spring, 1998). According to Karabel and Halsey
(1977), human capital theory has a “direct appeal to pro-capitalist
ideological sentiment that resides in its insistence that the worker is a
holder of capital (as embodied in his skills and knowledge) and that he has
the capacity to invest (in himself)” (p. 13). This theory appeals to
developing countries as it is connected with receipt of funding but also
because it holds “promise to support economic growth through the one
Diane E. Oliver 5
resource in which these countries have confidence, the latent talents and
intellectual abilities of their people” (Oliver, 2004, p. 120).
Yet higher education is not just a matter of economics, as extensive
reading of World Bank publications might lead one to think. Ransom,
Khoo, and Selvaratnam (1993) seem sensitive to this issue: “The central
point about HE is that unlike other forms of capital, it transcends mere
economic returns” (p. 2). The Communist Party of Vietnam’s (CPV) Sixth
National Congress in 1986 described other socializing objectives for
higher education: “moral qualities . . . defined as upholding positive
attitudes toward socialism, developing decent perspectives on self perfec-
tion and social progress, acquiring academic potential for life-long
learning and developing capabilities to access employment” (Doan, 2000,
p. 27). Edward Shils (1982) thought that the primary task of universities
“is the methodological discovery of and teaching of truths about serious
and important things” (p. 3). Bok (1990) emphasizes the importance of
teaching moral education through applied ethics.
For Vietnam in contrast to many other developing countries, Confu-
cian philosophy strongly influences the way that society views education.
For Confucius, “knowledge was held as an indispensable treasure. The
knowledge which he taught to be pursued was not purely scientific
learning, but was the study of sacred texts and the rules of virtue and
propriety (Shinn, 1997, p. 3). One of the five obligations was Tri, the duty
to become educated (Pham, 1994). “Vietnamese teachers are expected to
be people who transfer knowledge but also those who provide moral
training” (Nguyen, 2003, p. 23). “The Vietnamese, like people in most Asian
cultures, consider education as the most reliable path to a successful life”
(Nguyen, 2003, p. 18). In her research concerning Vietnamese
conceptualizations of quality in HE, Nguyen (2003) found that university
faculty and students agreed it was “meeting the requirements of society.
. . . creativity, good professional skills, and readiness to be useful to the
society by contributing to the development of the country . . . and the
people” (p. 190). Students also stressed that the knowledge and skills
taught must be relevant to “real life” (Nguyen, 2003, p. 190).
In summary, nonquantifiable objectives are expressed in different
words across countries, similar concepts are found within education
systems internationally. Schools are socializing institutions, “education
has multiple essential missions, and human capital theory only focuses
on one of them to the exclusion of the rest” (Oliver, 2004, p. 126).
The Problems
A dramatic increase in demand and enrollments over the past 40
years is one of the most pressing problems experienced by higher
6 Higher Education Challenges
education in developing countries: “Resources, both public and private,
have not kept pace with escalating enrollments and costs” (Ransom,
Khoo, & Selvaratnam, 1993, p.1). “In 1995 more than 47 million students
were enrolled in higher education in the developing world, up from nearly
28 million in 1980” (The Task Force, 2000, p. 27).
The World Bank (1994) establishes four categories that facilitate
analysis of higher education problems found in developing countries: (a)
severe resource constraints, (b) internal efficiencies, (c) external efficien-
cies, and (d) social equity. The problems identified by the World Bank
under each of these categories are representative of discussions across
the literature on this subject.
With regard to resource constraints, the World Bank (1994) reports
that “adverse macroeconomic conditions and increased competition for
scarce public funds have reduced many governments’ capacity to support
higher education and public expenditures for higher education have
fallen” (p. 16). Staffing problems have resulted from low salaries that
cause teachers either to leave the profession or work additional jobs,
which compete for the teachers’ time and often detract from the quality
of education provided to their students (Lim, 1999). A second significant
problem is faculty qualifications: “Unfortunately, even at flagship univer-
sities in developing countries, many faculty members have little, if any,
graduate level training” (The Task Force, 2000, p. 23). Teaching methods
primarily depend upon lecturing and writing notes on the chalkboard,
which the students copy into their notebooks (The Task Force, 2000).
Normally students cannot afford to buy textbooks and only a small
number of copies are available for use by students in the library.
Deterioration of the infrastructure is another resource constraint
problem. The World Bank (1994) report found that overcrowded condi-
tions common to higher education institutions in developing countries
force managers to focus on the cost of meeting operating requirements
and they often lack sufficient funds to address facility maintenance needs
(World Bank, 1994, p. 19).
The second category, internal efficiencies, includes issues associated
with institution size and student to teacher ratios. In some countries,
rapid enrollment increases have resulted in a “proliferation of uneco-
nomically small, specialized institutions characterized by high unit costs
and significant duplication in their program offerings” (World Bank, 1994,
p. 19). According to a 1986 study, the unit costs were at least 50% higher
for institutions with enrollments of less than 4,000 students (World Bank
1994). There are also three other factors that increase costs per gradu-
ating student: (a) low student to staff ratios, (b) high dropout rates, and
(c) high course repetition rates.
Diane E. Oliver 7
According to the World Bank (1994), “two types of external efficiency
affect the higher education systems of developing countries: graduate
unemployment and declining research output” (p. 28). There are various
dimensions to the graduate unemployment problem including “the
production of graduates whose skills and specializations do not reflect
those needed in the labor market” (Ransom, Khoo, & Selvaratnam, 1993,
p. 1). One important aspect of the unemployment problem is the lack of
established links between industry and higher education institutions.
Ransom, Khoo, and Selvaratnam (1993) point to the paradoxical situation
where engineering and science graduates are unemployed because
“there are not enough skills in the general labor force to stimulate the
creation of firms in the technology fields to generate more jobs in these
areas” (p. 17).
Lim (1999) also argues that “in developing countries there are often
significant political intervention in the affairs of universities, with much
less academic freedom for staff and students of the type treasured in
universities in developed countries” (p. 4). Lim sites Vietnam as an
example: “Political interference makes the search for truth, especially in
the social sciences, unattractive, and promotion by political or social
connection discourages the pursuit of excellence in teaching and re-
search” (p. 5).
Problems in research output in developing countries can be traced
to shortages in physical infrastructure, laboratory equipment, comput-
ers and software, learning resources including textbooks and journals,
and “well qualified science and technology teachers and researchers”
(The Task Force, 2000, p. 73). The “brain drain” is also a part of this
problem: “Estimates indicate that about one-third of foreign students
studying in the United States do not return to their countries” (The
Task Force, 2000, p. 73).
Equity often generates a tension with equality in access policies
(Ransom, Khoo & Selvaratnam, 1993, p. 5). The World Bank (1994) found
that “the rapid growth of enrollments has led to increased access to higher
education for traditionally less privileged populations, including women
and students of rural origin” (p. 22). “However, higher education is still
very elitist” (World Bank, 1994, p. 23).
Recommended Remedies
The Task Force (2000) has numerous recommendations for address-
ing the problems found in developing countries. There is a need to
improve the infrastructure and to raise the quality of secondary educa-
tion. The Task Force says that countries will have to come up with
additional funding for these efforts, but the investment will also attract
8 Higher Education Challenges
help from outside sources. The Task Force stresses the importance of
improving institutional governance: “We believe that poor manage-
ment is often the single greatest obstacle to stronger higher education”
(p. 95).
The World Bank’s (1994) report emphasizes the importance of diversi-
fying the types of institutions available in the higher education sector.
This report found a direct correlation between the degree of diversifi-
cation and the country’s income; lower income countries tend to be
public university based. Ransom, Khoo, and Selvaratnam (1993) argue
that “structural diversity has made it possible to expand access to HE,
to respond to the demand for different types of HE by different social
groups. . ., and to provide HE that recognizes and reacts to labor market
signals” (p. 6). The Task Force (2000) states that “the labor market. .
.creates a demand for graduates who have undergone training of
different types and intensities” (p. 32).
In the case of countries in Eastern and Central Europe, as well as the
Socialist Republic of Vietnam, there is a need to continue consolidation
of the small, specialized, independent institutions that report to numer-
ous different government entities. During recent years the trend has
been toward some institutional consolidation, but in the interim research
institutes and HEIs should work together since “education and research
are two closely related elements in establishing knowledge” (UNESCO,
1998, p. 17).
“Higher education institutions should educate students to become
well informed and deeply motivated citizens, who can think critically,
analyze problems of society, look for solutions to the problems of society,
apply them and accept social responsibilities” (UNESCO, 1998, p. 10).
New curricula and teaching methods must be developed to nurture
critical thinking and decision making skills across academic fields. Strong
support for staff development in terms of policy and commitment of
funding are also essential.
Another important aspect of diversification refers to funding. World-
wide spending on higher education is estimated to be around USD $300
billion (Task Force, 2000). “Nearly one-third of this expenditure is in
developing countries and, with developing country systems heavily
dominated by public universities that tend to have low tuition fees, the
costs fall predominantly on the state” (Task Force, 2000, p. 54). Many
developing countries have implemented cost sharing through tuition
fees. Income generating activities recommended by the World Bank
(1994) include short courses, research, and consultant contracts. Also of
importance to financial diversification are private higher education
institutions. Private institutions comprise 70.3% of higher education
Diane E. Oliver 9
institutions in Indonesia and 75.2% in the Philippines (Cohen, 2001, p.
A47).
The World Bank (1994) report has several recommendations that
address ways in which higher education systems in developing countries
can be more responsive to changes in economic requirements; these are
specifically relevant to the roles of community colleges. The links
between tertiary institutions and the commercial sector can be developed
“through the participation of [employer] representatives in the gover-
nance of institutions, the increased use of domestic and international
apprenticeship, work-study opportunities. . ., the exchange of personnel
between the world of work and higher education institutions and revised
curricula” (UNESCO, 1998, p. 9). The adoption of financial incentives is
recommended to nurture industry-higher education institution joint
efforts, such as research, internships, and adjunct part time faculty
comprised of practicing professionals. “Continuing education programs
are also an effective channel to respond to changing training require-
ments” (World Bank, 1994, p. 11).
Two additional elements that require greater attention are gender
equity and access by adult learners. UNESCO’s (1998) World Declaration
on Higher Education states that it is essential to “remove gender inequali-
ties and biases in curricula and research and take all appropriate measures
to ensure balanced representation of both men and women among students
and teachers, at all levels of management” (p. 21). With regard to adult
learners, UNESCO recommends the development of “mechanisms to
recognize the outcomes of learning undertaken in different contexts, and
to ensure that credit is transferable within and between institutions,
sectors, and states” (p. 21). This latter recommendation is a tremendous
challenge even within industrialized countries, like the U.S.. Yet, the
establishment of articulation agreements has proven to be effective with
the U.S. community college model (Sotello & Turner, 1994).
Vietnam shares many of the problems previously described. To
understand more fully how these problems and some of the recom-
mended solutions operate in a developing country, Vietnam’s higher
education system, the challenges it faces, and corrective measures that
the government has already taken will be examined.
Vietnam’s Higher Education System
Vietnam has developed rapidly during the last decade of the 20th
century going from a population of 70 million in 1991 (Nguyen, 1994) to
80 million in 1999, and from a per capita income of $200 per year in 1992
to $390 in 1999 (Kelly, 2000). The higher education system has been
10 Higher Education Challenges
through many transitions and continues with the reform process today.
These changes have been a challenge for managers of the HEIs.
An Overview
Vietnam’s HE system today is exhibiting dramatic growth: “Between
1993 and 1995, total higher education enrollments grew by 117% (from
162,000 to 354,000), while expenditures grew by 63%” (The World Bank,
1998, p. 1). Between 1995 and 1997, student enrollments at the univer-
sities doubled (Kelly, 2000). “Given that more than 65 percent of
Vietnam’s 80 million residents are younger than 26, these numbers are
expected to continue growing” (Kelly, 2000, p. 3). The HE system also has
become relatively diversified. A restructuring began in 1993 resulting in
the consolidation of several independent public institutions into two
multidisciplinary national and three regional universities, as well as the
establishment of two Open Universities (Postiglione & Mak, 1997).
By the 1997 to 1998 academic year, Vietnam’s higher education
system was comprised of “121 universities and colleges consist[ing] of 42
public higher education institutions, 15 people-established institutions,
63 [public] junior colleges and 1 people-established one” (MOET, 2000, p.
39). Semi-public institutions are established by the state with invest-
ments from social and political organizations as well as individuals.
People-founded institutions are “owned and managed by non-govern-
ment organizations or private associations such as trade unions [and]
cooperatives” (World Bank, 1997, p. 33). However, half of the universities
and colleges, and a majority of the jobs are in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City
while 76% of the population lives in the rural areas (Kelly, 2000). Many
of the colleges and junior colleges are administratively managed by
provincial governments, offer 3 year courses, and present diplomas. At
least two thirds of these institutions are solely for training elementary
and middle school teachers.
Diversification also applies to HE students who are divided into five
categories: (a) regular full-time, (b) short-term training, (c) specialized or
retraining, (d) in-service training, and (e) other (World Bank, 1997). Full-
time students comprise the largest percentage, but the number has been
declining in relative terms (World Bank, 1997).
Tran (2002) explains how social equality is assured through a
diversified education system: “Naturally, all people cannot be equal in
terms of ability. Each individual has, however, his/her specific ability
which should be developed: and a progressive society must create equal
opportunities to do so” (p. 43). The ability to succeed in a university is first
measured by a competitive national entrance exam which, using Can Tho
University as an example, “eliminates 85 to 90 percent of the applicants
Diane E. Oliver 11
[and] candidates living in isolated areas have little opportunity to study
at university entrance examination preparation centers that operate in
the big cities” (Tran & Slopper, 1995, p. 214). Tran (2002) goes on to say
that the topography of Vietnam is also diverse and “each region has
specific features and objectives which should be placed within the overall
socio-economic frame of the country. It is, therefore, critical to diversify
education and human resource development to attain the set objectives”
in relation to local requirements (p. 47).
Although diversification of institutions and students is considered to
be one viable approach to solving the access problem, Vietnam’s situation
reveals some diversification related problems. Doan (2000) argues “it is
the diversity of educational programmes and their uneven standards that
has created a confusing range of qualifications. This issue has so far,
confused the public and prospective employers” (p. 37). She also states
that it has made the task of defining graduate program admission criteria
extremely difficult.
“The Ministry of Education and Training is responsible for policy
making, guidance, and supervision in connection with all the education
programs and the administration of the higher education institutions”
(Postiglione & Mak, 1997, p. 363). Although the Ministry of Education and
Training (MOET) has this major role, many institutions also come under
other ministries. “With regard to course organization, the Ministry of
Education and Training approves new courses and the education pro-
grams, develops the examination statutes, and confers degrees”
(Postiglione & Mak, 1997, p. 365). MOET also reviews and authorizes the
publication of textbooks, formulates enrollment regulations, and funds
the fixed institutional expenses, such as maintenance and salaries.
MOET and the Ministry of Finance (MOF) periodically issue guidelines
concerning the range for fees that institutions are permitted to charge.
Categories of students who receive complete fee exemptions are war
invalids, orphans, and students of exceptional academic ability (World
Bank, 1997). There are also fee reductions for certain ethnic minorities
as well as the children of military personnel and civil servants. However
the Vietnam Education Financing Sector Study (VEFSS) shows that the
education gap between the richest and poorest increases as one moves
upward through the grade levels: “The richest 20 percent account for
more than half of all those enrolled in upper secondary and tertiary
education” (World Bank, 1997, p. 112).
Issues Faced by Vietnam’s Higher Education System
Kelly (2000) identifies access as one of the most critical problems
facing Vietnam’s higher education institutions now and into the future.
12 Higher Education Challenges
MOET (2000) states that “the Vietnamese Communist Party and Govern-
ment consider education and training as their first priority among
national policies” (p. 33). With this strongly stated commitment and
Vietnam’s “historical reverence for education, the high level of demand
for tertiary education, and a growing population that adds up to 2 million
new students each year will continue to exert pressure on the tertiary
system” (Kelly, 2000, p. 5). “This year (2001-02) MOET estimates that
university and college enrollments will exceed 160,000, an increase of
more than 13,000 from last year” (IIE, 2001, p. 5).
During interviews at Hue University, in the central region of
Vietnam, Berlie (1993) identified six areas of “special concern” in the
higher education system: (a) the budget, (b) the programs, (c) the
reorganization of higher education, (d) the teachers, (e) the study of
foreign languages, and (f) the difficulties graduates experience in finding
employment (p. 44). The funding of higher education does not seem to be
increasing and may even be on the decline. Vietnam’s education system
has heavily emphasized the theoretical, but as the economy becomes
more market based, the practical aspects of education must be integrated
into the curriculum. Berlie (1993) describes the serious problem of low
faculty pay that makes it impossible for teachers to support their families
without additional employment. In 1993, professors received a salary
increase and their earnings rose to USD $20 per month (Pham & Sloper,
1995). Today, university faculty salaries range between USD $30 and $70
per month. In the area of employment, “the Faculty of Medicine of Ho Chi
Minh City admitted that half of the students cannot find work on
graduation” (Berlie, 1993, p. 44). Part of the unemployment problem
stems from low wages and inadequate resources in provincial areas,
causing graduates to seek jobs in the large, crowded cities.
Dang (1998) also discusses issues facing Vietnam’s higher education
system. He says the “quality of education is still low. Most university
graduates do not have the adequate capacity to cope with rapid industrial
and technological changes” (Dang, 1998, p. 157). Children of poor families
still do not have equal access to continued education (Dang, 1998). There
are not enough teachers and the number with graduate degrees is low.
MOET (2000) reports professors and associate professors. . .occupy 5.7%
of teaching staff and doctor and Ph.D. degree holders take 14% of total
academics” (p. 39). The distribution of professors and associate professors
tends to be uneven among the universities, with the greatest number
residing in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City. “For rural universities, most
staff will have only a Bachelor degree” (Lim, 1999, p.3). Dang (1998) also
argues that education management is generally weak. He emphasizes
the need for a stronger connection between knowledge and skills. Sykes