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AA GGuuiiddee ttoo CCuurrrriiccuullaarr IInntteeggrraattiioonn bbyy RRoobbeerrtt CC.. MMoorrrriiss A school’s curriculum can ap- Lessons can become more meaningful to pear unrelated, fragmented, or somewhat disjointed if not done students and save teachers valuable time with an end in mind. This frag- when subjects are integrated properly, not mentation or disjointedness often affects students and their superficially. views of the experiences being given them in school (Beane 1991). Various curriculum-integration techniques, however, can be used What Does Integrating learning as well as real life. Of to help make the big picture more Curriculum Mean? course, sometimes integration is understandable to students; and Jacqueline Anglin’s (1999, 3) not the best approach to teach- these have the added benefit of insight that “integrating curricu- ing. Integration just for the sake allowing teachers to focus better lum correctly requires more than of integration even can interfere on teaching and student learning. combining two subjects, or turn with learning if constructed ac- teaching” was right on track. The tivities are not meaningful. Robert C. Morris is Professor of Cur- notion of integrating a curricu- To integrate a curriculum is to riculum Studies, State University of lum is more than connecting combine subjects to meet objec- West Georgia in Carrollton. He is pieces so that students can see tives across the curriculum, not Counselor for the Omicron Omega the bigger design. In effective just objectives pertaining to one Chapter of Kappa Delta Pi. His cur- curriculum-integration models, subject. For example, while rent research interests relate to lead- knowledge is meaningfully re- studying Indians in social studies, ership activities for curricular and lated and connects in such a way reading could be integrated by in- instructional change. that it is relevant to other areas of cluding both fiction and nonfic- 164 Kappa Delta Pi Record • Summer 2003 tion stories about Indians. View- curriculum almost always pro- might read A Christmas Carol ing and recreating Indian art duced equivalent or even better (Dickens 2001). In math, students could meet art objectives. Chart- scores on standardized achieve- could calculate the costs of their ing the locations of various tribes ment tests than those where stu- Christmas lists. Social studies and calculating mileage between dents were taught through the classes might research Christmas different tribes or distances tribes traditional discipline-oriented in other countries. In language arts, traveled could meet geography format. students could write about their and math objectives. Today, these are some of the favorite Christmas. In science, les- An interdisciplinary or inte- more popular curricular models sons could focus on weather or fly- grated curriculum allows students that have evolved and currently are ing machines. to make connections among vari- being used: •The threaded model ous subjects, while also helping to •The connected integration “threads” thinking, social, or study solve the teacher’s dilemma of hav- model does not integrate various skills to connect learning across the ing so much to accomplish in a subjects, but focuses on integrating curriculum. For example, sequenc- limited time. An integrated cur- skills or concepts within a subject. ing is a skill taught primarily in riculum, by nature, ties an indi- For example, a science teacher can reading, but can be threaded into vidual subject to the circle of edu- relate a geology unit to an as- the other subjects. In social stud- cational experiences and learning, tronomy unit by emphasizing that ies, students could put in order the thus reducing the need for teach- each has an evolutionary nature voyages of Christopher Columbus ers formally to make every lesson (Fogarty 1991). and the events leading up to them. a connection to life. The saved time •The nested integration In math, patterns of numbers allows teachers more opportuni- model focuses on natural combi- could be explored. In science, the ties to accomplish tasks on their nations. For instance, a lesson on steps of succession of a dying or ever-growing “required” lists. the circulatory system can inte- dead forest could be explored. And grate the concept of systems as well in health, students could study the Models of Integration as demonstrate “cause and effect” steps in digesting food. The current trend to imple- on specific understandings of the •The integrated model blends ment an integrated curriculum is circulatory system (Fogarty 1991). the four major disciplines by find- not a new idea. Vars (1991) traced •In the sequencedm odel, ing concepts or skills that overlap. the evolving concept of the core units are taught separately, but are The most popular example of this curriculum back to Herbert designed to provide a broad frame- model is the whole-language ap- Spencer’s writings in the 1800s. By work for related concepts. For ex- proach that is now being imple- the late 1930s and early ’40s, the ample, while reading A Taste of mented in many elementary term “core curriculum” had be- Blackberries (Smith 1992), a paral- schools. This method blends the come part of the literature in vari- lel lesson on bees could be taught skills of reading, writing, speaking, ous state and national curriculum- in science. and listening using literature as a reform efforts, most significantly •The shared model looks for theme. the progressive education move- overlapping concepts and involves •The immersed model advo- ment. In 1942, the concept of core coordinated planning between two cates that integration take place and integrated curriculum was be- teachers of different subjects. A lit- within the learner with little or no ing tested in the famous Eight-Year erature teacher and a history outside help. For example, a stu- Study of the Progressive Education teacher, for example, may team up dent who has a love for horses Association. By the late 1980s, to teach an historical perspective of reads about horses, writes about more than 80 normative or com- the concepts of segregation and them, draws pictures of them, and parative studies had been con- desegregation by reading Roll of longs to learn more about them ducted on the effectiveness of in- Thunder, Hear My Cry (Taylor 2001). and possibly become a horse tegration (National Association for •The webbed model generally trainer or veterinarian. Core Curriculum 1984). These uses a theme to connect all subject •The networked model allows studies found that programs using areas. If the theme were Christmas, for exploration, experimentation, integration or an interdisciplinary for instance, literature classes and participation. A student’s fas- Kappa Delta Pi Record • Summer 2003 165 cination with the solar system and a microscope. It filters all con- from the pilot phase. Adding the space travel, for instance, directs his tent through the lens of inter- program to the existing curricu- or her reading choices or television est and expertise. . . . The net- lum is often constrained by time; viewing. Teachers or family mem- worked model views the replacing the curriculum with the bers cognizant of this child’s interest curriculum through a prism, new one is much more common. encourage him or her by allowing the creating multiple dimensions For example, English, social student to go to space camp. and directions of focus. studies, and art are replaced by Robin Fogarty (1991, 61–64) humanities. made a wonderful analogy of these Planning for Curriculum Planning for curriculum inte- models by comparing them to vi- Integration gration on a daily basis for indi- sual devices: Integrating the curriculum of a vidual classrooms is equally impor- school takes planning. Jacobs tant as planning integration at the The connected model of the (1991) developed a four-phase plan system level. To assist teachers in integrated curriculum is the that can be accomplished in three curriculum integration, Palmer view through an opera glass, years: (1991, 58) suggested the use of a providing a close-up of the • Phase I (six months to one “planning wheel”—a device that details, subtleties, and inter- year) is research. Internal re- “allows for teachers to focus on a connections within each sub- search is conducted to plot the specific subject area while identi- ject area. . . . The nested model units of study taught on a fying appropriate connections with views the curriculum through monthly basis—to find out when other content.” Palmer’s steps for three-dimensional glasses, students are studying certain implementing the planning wheel targeting multiple dimen- subject matter, to reduce repeti- follow: sions of a lesson. . . . The se- tion of material from year to year • Step 1: Identify common quenced model views the cur- and to identify units of study that goals, objectives, themes, and skills riculum through eyeglasses: lend themselves to an interdisci- among the different subjects. the lenses are separate but plinary approach. Staff members • Step 2: Develop a sample connected by a common conduct external research by at- planning wheel to illustrate the frame. . . . The shared model tending conferences, making on- kinds of connections to be made. views the curriculum through site visits, or arranging in-service The focus of the unit, such as binoculars, bringing two dis- activities. nutrition (in a health class), is listed tinct disciplines together into • Phase II (two to four months) in the middle of the wheel. On the a single focused image. . . . The is development of a proposal. Po- outside of the wheel are other sub- webbed model views the cur- tential areas for interdisciplinary jects, and under each are listed ac- riculum through a telescope, units are assessed, and an existing tivities related to the focus—for capturing an entire constella- unit of study is upgraded to include example, under math, calculating tion of disciplines at once. . . . integration of various subjects. On calories for dietary planning; under The threaded model views the completion of the proposal and its language arts, writing about foods curriculum through a big review at higher levels, classroom from other cultures; under music, magnifying glass: the ‘big implementation of a pilot program singing songs about food; under ideas’ are enlarged through- may follow. physical education, determining out all content with a • Phase III (two to six weeks) correct amounts of exercise to burn metacurricular approach. . . . is implementation of the pilot calories. The integrated model views program. This phase includes as- • Step 3: Planners of cur- the curriculum through a ka- sessment by the teaching staff in- riculum use the wheel as an aid leidoscope: interdisciplinary volved in the pilot. The program to organizing and planning new topics are rearranged around is monitored and evaluated, and curricula. overlapping concepts and feedback is given. • Step 4: In-service activities emergent patterns and de- • Phase IV (third year of plan) are held to train teachers on how signs. . . . The immersed model is adoption of the program based to implement the proposed inte- views the curriculum through on the feedback and evaluation grated curriculum. 166 Kappa Delta Pi Record • Summer 2003 Will Integrating learning for students, as well as a Wigginton (1991, 49) wrote: Make a Difference? time-saver for teachers. Integration may not work, es- Brophy (Alleman and Brophy Keeping the curriculum re- pecially when curriculum integra- 1993) suggested testing each pro- quirements in mind, I initiated tion is implemented merely for the posed activity with the following a unit in formal letter writing. sake of integration. In fact, integra- questions before integrating it If I could just figure out ways of tion can be counterproductive across the curriculum: this sort to make the curricu- when activities originally intended lum work for the magazine in- to combine subject matter and ob- •Does the activity have a sig- stead of against it, I could kill jectives in a meaningful way lack nificant educational goal as its pri- two birds with one stone. I educational value, or meet objec- mary focus? could fulfill the state require- tives in one subject while failing to •Would this activity be desir- ments and at the same time satisfy objective requirements in able even if it did not feature give those requirements an the other subjects (Brophy and across-subjects integration? added dimension of reality for Alleman 1991). Activities such as •Would an outsider clearly the students that would make alphabetizing state capitals or recognize the activity as relating to their internalization and mas- counting states in a geographical the subject? tery far more likely. . . . Classes region are not valuable lessons in •Does the activity allow stu- had come together as one. the area of social studies. These dents to develop meaningfully or Teaching was beginning to activities would be done just for the apply authentically important make sense. sake of integration and are more or content? less busywork (Alleman and •Does it involve authentic If integrated teaching can help Brophy 1993). application of the skill from other a school’s curriculum “make sense” Not only are some activities disciplines? to the teacher, then consider how meaningless, but they also may be •If the activity is structured much more sense it can make for the time-consuming or costly—for ex- properly, will students be able to student if it lives up to the ideals that ample, carving pumpkins to look understand and explain its educa- form a basis for meaningful educa- like U.S. presidents. Too often, tional purposes? tional experiences. teachers integrate superficially with activities devoid of curricular •If students engage in the ac- References value. One teacher attempted to tivity with those purposes in mind, Alleman, J., and J. Brophy. 1993. Is curriculum integration a boon or a threat to social integrate math and social studies will they be likely to accomplish the studies? Elementary education. Social Education 57(6): 287–91. by having students fill a matrix with purposes as a result? Anglin, J. M. 1999. Develop your own philosophy. New Teacher Advocate 7(1): 3. the actual numbers of the consti- Some of the most famous and Beane, J. 1991. The middle school: The natural home of integrated curriculum. Educational tutional amendments, thinking successful examples of curriculum Leadership 49(2): 9–13. Brophy, J., and J. Alleman. 1991. A caveat: this represented a math objective integration come from Wigginton’s Curriculum integration isn’t always a good because the students were “using” Foxfire Experience (1985). In at- idea. Educational Leadership 49(2): 66. Dickens, C. 2001. A Christmas carol. Foster City, numbers (Alleman and Brophy tempting to reach a group of stu- Calif.: Hungry Minds. Fogarty, R. 1991. Ten ways to integrate 1993). dents who were basically failing in curriculum. Educational Leadership 49(2): 61–65. school, Wigginton searched for a way Jacobs, H. H. 1991. Planning for curriculum integration. Educational Leadership 49(2): A Design for Success to teach that would motivate stu- 27–28. National Association for Core Curriculum. 1984. To make integration mean- dents and give them a meaningful Bibliography of research on the effectiveness of block—Time, core, and interdisciplinary ingful and successful in a class- educational experience. He coordi- team teaching programs. Kent, Ohio: NACC. room, activities must be assessed nated students to develop the Foxfire Palmer, J. M. 1991. Planning wheels turn curriculum around. Educational Leadership by their educational value and publication, letting them write, edit, 49(2): 57–60. Smith, D. B. 1992. A taste of blackberries. New meet curricular objectives in two and even negotiate book contracts. York: HarperTrophy. Taylor, M. D. 2001. Roll of thunder, hear my cry. or more subject areas. When He obviously achieved the motiva- New York: Phyllis Fogelman Books. Vars, G. F. 1991. Integrated curriculum in implemented properly, not su- tion he desired, but time constraints historical perspective. Educational Leadership 49(2): 14–15. perficially, integration can be a and particular curricular require- Wigginton, E. 1985. Sometimes a shining moment: The Foxfire experience. Garden City, more meaningful approach to ments were constant hindrances. N.Y.: Anchor Press/Doubleday. Kappa Delta Pi Record • Summer 2003 167