ERIC EJ781688: Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius--Elementary School Students

2008·0.11 MB·English

by  ERIC

sh oi sc ti oa rl /i ce aml optei rosnpael cnt ei veedss
Jennifer L. Jolly, Ph.D.
TLeitwlei so Tf ethrme aCno:l uGmenne Gtioce Sst uHdeyre of Genius—
LEoleomkienngt aLriyk eS cThhoisol Students
I
“If I am remembered very long after my death, it Seven ‘Bright’ and Seven ‘Stupid’ Boys,” set the
will probably be in connection with my studies of stage for Terman’s eventual study of gifted children.
gifted children [and] the construction of mental Within a decade of his appointment at Stanford,
tests” (Terman, 1930a, p. 330). Terman began to collect data for the most extensive
and enduring longitudinal study on identified gifted
Although the field of gifted education generally children (Chapman, 1988; Minton, 1988).
recognizes the foundational work of Lewis Terman, Although the longitudinal study of gifted chil-
rarely does one stop to examine the details of his dren was a defining feature of Terman’s career, so
longitudinal study and their connection to present- too, was his work with intelligence tests. However, a
day gifted education. This column reexamines the strict line of demarcation cannot be drawn between
beginnings of Terman’s longitudinal study with a the two areas because Terman’s definition of gifted-
focus on elementary-school-aged children. ness was so closely tied to that of intelligence. In
In 1910, Lewis Terman arrived at Stanford 1913, building on Stern’s transformation of Binet’s
University to begin a tenure that would last the mental age to Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Terman
remainder of his academic career. He originally sensed that further validation of the Binet-Simon
moved to California for health and financial reasons, scale would have “great importance for the educa-
taking a position as a high school principal, and only tional treatment of . . . talented children” (Terman,
found himself at Stanford after a stint at Los Angeles 1913, p. 104). He called for further research “for the
Normal School and a confluence of factors that had purpose of ascertaining more definitely what perfor-
worked to his advantage. Stanford was an institu- mances may rightly be expected of . . . 125 percent
tion where he aspired to work but never believed he intelligence at the various age levels” (Terman, 1915,
would find a position. At the age of 33, he worried p. 537). In addition, Terman proposed that the use
that securing a good university position was quickly of intelligence tests could go far beyond that of mere
slipping from his grasp (Terman, 1930a). Shortly categorization, and important insights could be
after his arrival at Stanford, he began to establish made concerning race, the behavior of intelligence
himself as leader in intelligence testing with his over time, genius, and mental stability (Lagemann,
membership on the Committee on the Psychological 2000).
Examination of Recruits during World War I, along Since 1911, Terman had received reports of
with his work on the revision of Binet’s intelligence gifted children and conducted his own case stud-
test (Seagoe, 1975). His documented interest in ies. This work was conducted on a small scale and
individual differences and intelligence, originating disrupted by Terman’s contribution to World War
with his dissertation entitled “Genius and Stupidity: I’s Army Alpha and Beta tests. However, in 1921,
A Study of Some of the Intellectual Processes of Terman was presented with an opportunity to
gifted child today 27
Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius
engage in a large-scale study of gifted superstitious in its origin, that 1. two intelligence tests (Stanford-
children, thanks to a grant from the intellectual precocity is patho- Binet and National [Intelligence
Commonwealth Fund. At the time, logical; (c) the vigorous growth Test] B) [both authored by
the Commonwealth Fund earmarked of democratic sentiment in . . . Terman and Terman and Yerkes,
$100,000 for educational endeavors. America . . . which has necessarily respectively];
One fifth, or $20,000, of the funds tended to encourage an attitude 2. a two-hour educational test (The
was awarded to Terman to advance Stanford Achievement Test) [also
unfavorable to a just apprecia-
the study of gifted children. The main authored by Terman];
tion of native individual differ-
study questions included 3. a fifty-minute test of general
ences in human endowment;
information in science, history,
and (d) the tardy birth of the
whether gifted children are as literature, and the arts;
biological sciences, particularly
well endowed physically as oth- 4. a fifty-minute test of knowledge
genetics, psychology and educa-
ers, what their hereditary ante-
of and interest in plays, games,
cedents are, what the influence tion. (Terman, 1925, p. vii)
and amusements;
of environment upon them has
5. a four-page interest blank to be
amounted to, how their superior The basic purpose of his research
filled out by the children;
ability is evidenced in school, in was to determine to what degree the
6. a two-months reading record to
play, and in spontaneous activi- gifted child varied from the average
be kept by the children;
ties, what kinds of tests will most child of normal intelligence. In the
7. a sixteen-page Home Information
readily reveal their superior- grant application submitted to the Blank, to be filled out by parents,
ity, whether it is permanent or
Commonwealth Fund, Terman artic- including ratings on twenty-five
ephemeral, what difficulties such
ulated the purpose in much more suc- traits;
children encounter in adapting
cinct terms: (a) increase the number of 8. an eight-page School Information
themselves to their surround-
subjects to 1,000, (b) administer two Blank to be filled out by the
ings, and so on. (Unknown cor-
intelligence tests to each subject, (b) teachers, including ratings on the
respondent, 1921, p. 695)
collect achievement data on four to same twenty-five traits as were
five school subjects, (c) administer spe- rated by the parents; and
Fortified with the grant from the
cialized ability tests to a small number 9. when possible, ratings of the
Commonwealth Fund, and methods
of subjects, (d) revise methods of col- home on the Whittier Scale for
and instruments from the science of
home grading. (Terman, 1925,
psychology, Terman began his Genetic lecting trait ratings and demographi-
p. 8)
Studies of Genius: Mental and Physical cal data, and (e) follow-up on subjects
Traits of a Thousand Gifted Children over a 10-year period. In 1922, the
The additional grant money
(1925), which was to become the Commonwealth Fund awarded
from the Commonwealth Fund and
most comprehensive compilation of Terman an extra $14,000 to collect
Stanford University allowed for seven
empirically gathered data on gifted additional medical, anthropomet-
further data points to be collected,
children of its time (more than 600 ric, and psychological data. Stanford
including medical examinations,
pages). According to Terman, a con-
University matched these funds with
fluence of factors had hindered “the anthropometric measurements, char-
$14,000 in both money and services
inauguration of research in this field” acter and personality tests, interest
(Terman, 1924a, 1924b, 1925).
(Terman, 1925, p. vii). He identified tests, organization of a reading guide
Combined with the initial award from
these factors as for gifted children, study of specialized
the Commonwealth Foundation,
abilities, and the biographical study
Terman had nearly $50,000 to begin
. . . the nature of superstitions, of eminent individuals similar to the
regarding the essential nature his study. In today’s money, this would works of Galton, Cattell, and Yoder
of the Great Man . . . moved equate to $619,938 (U.S. Department (Terman, 1925, 1930b). In total,
by forces which are not to be of Labor, n.d.). Field assistants and Terman identified 16 data collection
explained by (a) the natural volunteers initially collected nine data points from which massive amounts of
laws of human behavior; (b) the points from each subject, including data were accumulated. The categories
widespread belief, hardly less the following: ranged from Racial and Social Origin,
28 winter 2008 • vol 31, no 1
Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius
to Test of Character and Personality
Table 1
Traits.
Classification of the Gifted Groups
The number of subjects reached
1,444 in 1924, with several con- Boys Girls Total
trol groups of 600 to 800 children.
Main Experimental Group (I) 370 314 684
Terman’s assistants scoured the state
Outside Binet Group (II) 197 159 356
of California for gifted children. Los
Angeles, San Francisco, Oakland, Outside High School Group (III) 257 121 378
Berkeley, and Alameda were the main Special Ability Group (IV) 10 16 26
cities of interest, with the heaviest
Note. From Terman (1925), p. 39.
concentration of children in the Bay
Area near the Stanford University Student Data tion of adult achievement and social
campus. Students were initially class to show that it also was correlated
selected by teacher nomination and Family Background to early childhood (Terman, 1924a).
age-grade status (youngest children in “Our data show that individuals of
the class). Candidates were given the The majority of students came the various social classes present these
National Intelligence Test, and those from Western Europe of Caucasian same differences in early childhood, a
who scored in the top 10% were then or Jewish ancestry, as noted: 30.7% fact which strongly suggests that the
administered an abbreviated version English, 15.7% German, 11.3% causal factor lies in original endow-
of Stanford-Binet. A nonlanguage ver- Scotch, 9.0% Irish, and 5.7% French, ment rather than in environmental
sion also was used to account for chil- and 10.5% Jewish. Terman noted the influences” (Terman, 1925, p. 66).
dren with foreign-born parents. The excess of children from Scotch and Terman also would argue that,
siblings of already nominated students Jewish heritages. Ethnic origin was despite the occupation levels held by
also were tested to identify additional determined from a child’s grandpar- the fathers, few families were wealthy.
subjects. Accidental discoveries were ents’ origin. Groups lacking represen- The yearly mean income was $4,705
made when the nominated child was tation despite their presence in the and the median income was $3,333,
absent and another child was sent in general population included African with 35.3% of the families reporting
his or her place, or in some cases the American, Italian, Portuguese, and an income below $2,500. However,
Mexican. Chinese children at the time
child messenger took the wrong child this was well above the reported aver-
attended “oriental schools” (Terman,
to the field assistant (Terman, 1924a, age annual salary of $1,236 in 1925.
1925, p. 56) and were not included
1924b, 1925). Although teacher nom- Several of the families lived in what
in the study (Terman, 1924a, 1925).
inations were used, the final criteria Terman considered poverty (Terman,
There also were several children in the
for inclusion of subjects in the main 1925).
sample from ethnically mixed mar-
experimental group consisted of those Home ratings were conducted
riages, including a Japanese American
subjects who scored an IQ of 140 or using the Whittier Scale for Grading
family whose 4 out of 5 children
above. Table 1 shows how many boys Home Conditions. Criteria included
qualified for Terman’s study. Terman
and girls were in each of the gifted necessities, neatness, size, parental
described them as “a remarkable fam-
groups. conditions, and parental supervision,
ily, and the fact that it is the result of a
Terman’s initial comments centered which were rated on a scale from 1 to
mixed marriage makes it doubly inter-
on the greater number of boys than 6. Unselected homes had a mean of
esting” (Terman, 1925, p. 107).
girls identified in the sample. He con- 20.78, whereas homes of the gifted
Terman also classified students
cluded that the findings directly sup- according to their father’s occupation. scored 22.94. The largest deviation was
ported the hypotheses that males are Classifications for the sample were revealed when comparing the homes
more variable than females, which in 31.4% professionals, 50% semiprofes- of the gifted with homes of delinquent
turn provided evidence that “excep- sional/business, 11.8% skilled labor, students whose mean score was 13.91.
tionally superior intelligence occurs and 6.8% semiskilled and unskilled Parental supervision reflected for the
with greater frequency among boys labor. Drawing from previous research, largest discrepancy between scores
continued on page ??
than girls” (Terman, 1925, p. 54). Terman connected the high correla- (Terman, 1925).
gifted child today 29
Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius
At least one fourth of early as clearly as in the
At least one fourth of
the gifted students had achievements of adult life
a parent who had gradu- suggests that the causes
ated from college, and the gifted students are to be sought in native
the mean for grades com- endowment rather than in
pleted was 12 with a SD the environment and edu-
had a parent who
of 3.5. For grandfathers, cation” (Terman, 1925, p.
the mean was 10.8 and 134).
9.7 for grandmothers. had graduated Dr. Bird T. Baldwin
On average the parents headed up the team that
of the gifted children had gathered the anthropo-
from college . . . On
completed twice as much metric measurements of
schooling as the average the children. Thirty-seven
adult (Terman, 1925). average the parents measurements were taken
This initial demographic on each child, totaling
data yielded a population 21,978 measurements
of the gifted children
that was White, middle for 594 children. The
class, and with parents compiled and analyzed
had completed twice
holding advanced school- data revealed that gifted
ing when compared to children from California
the average population, as much schooling measured better in weight
and an overrepresentation and height in compari-
of children of Jewish heri- son to the best averages
as the average adult
tage. Terman attributed for American children.
this “indirect evidence that (Comparison groups of
the heredity of our gifted (Terman, 1925). gifted children were from
subjects is much superior Oak Park, IL, and the
to that of the average indi- Horace Mann School in
Cattell. Mothers reported 3.35 births,
vidual” (Terman, 1925, p. 83). New York.) Up to the age of 12, boys
which was lower than the 4.7 Galton
Another point of interest con- exceeded girls in all measurements
reported nearly 50 years earlier. Infant
cerned the prevalence of superior rela- taken. However, after 12 years of age,
mortality was generally low. Fathers’
tives in children’s family trees. Several girls surpassed the boys in height,
average age at the birth of a gifted child
families could identify relatives who weight, chest and hip measurements,
was 33.63 years (SD + 7.70) whereas
were Presidents or Vice-Presidents of and stem length. The coefficients of
mothers’ age was 29.01 (SD + 5.64).
the United States, writers, generals, correlation for all measurements were
Cattell’s study reported an average of
statesmen, and Supreme Court jus- high for both age and gender, which
age 35 for fathers and 29 for mothers,
tices. Terman saw this as evidence to ranged from .322 to .851 (Terman,
and Galton’s study reported 36 years
support Galton’s theory of the herita- 1924b, 1925). “The results of this
bility of genius. However, he also rec- of age of fathers and 30 for moth- investigation show that the gifted
ognized the limits of these data and ers. The most salient figures focused group is, as a whole, physically supe-
believed more exact data would be on birth order, which showed nearly rior to the various groups used for
needed to “reveal the laws by which exact agreement with Cattell’s study. comparison” (Terman, 1925, p. 171).
superior mental ability is transmitted” Cattell and Terman both found that Further medical examinations were
(Terman, 1925, p. 111). gifted children were more likely to be given to 783 gifted children, of whom
first-born in families of two or more. 591 belonged to the main experimen-
Health and Hygiene This evidence also supported previous tal group, in order to obtain current
studies that first-born children also medical information. Dr. Moore (Los
Vital statistics were gathered from had higher levels of achievement in Angeles Region) and Dr. Bronson
91 families for comparison against adult life. “The fact that superiority (San Francisco/Bay Area Region) were
statistics compiled by Galton and of the first born registers in childhood responsible for the medical examina-
30 winter 2008 • vol 31, no 1
Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius
tions and write-ups for each, tak- (P.Q.), was determined by dividing ing, insatiable curiosity, extensive
ing one and a half hours per child; the standard age of the child’s grade information, retentive memory, early
considerable time was given to this by the child’s age at midterm. Terman speech, unusual vocabulary, etc.”
endeavor. Examination was made of determined the average P.Q. for gifted (Terman, 1925, p. 287). Most of the
the skin, head, ears, eyes, nose, mouth, children was 114, which meant that parents did not report any contrived
neck, chest, abdomen, genitals, back, on average gifted children were accel- means of child training but let their
extremities, bones, joints, muscles, erated 14% when compared to unse-
children’s intellectual development
tendons, cranium, endocrine glands, lected children. He also noted that
grow naturally, by generally answer-
urine, blood, blood pressure, radio- the gifted child was 48% above the
ing questions and helping a child to
graphs, and basal metabolism. General norm in intelligence but accelerated
develop his or her interests. With these
conclusions by both doctors were that only 14%, thus leaving the child 34%
data Terman furthered his argument
gifted children were physically supe- underpromoted. At age 9 this trans-
that superior intelligence is caused by
rior when compared to children of the lated to being retarded three grades
heritability rather than intelligence
same age in the general school popula- and by age 12 this expanded to four
training (Terman, 1925).
tion. grades. Although 85% of the children
In order to gather a more precise
had been promoted one grade, their
measurement of educational achieve-
[Dr. Moore:] In regard to a gen- teachers claimed that 82% warranted
ment, the Stanford Achievement Test
eral comparison of this group further promotion. By calculating
and its subtests were administered
with unselected children, it is my mental age, a discrepancy of 2.8 years
to 543 children of the main experi-
opinion that major and minor was formed for first graders when
defects are much less common compared to chronological peers, and mental group in elementary science,
in the former. In my opinion by fifth grade this discrepancy grew hygiene, and geography; language and
the physical superiority of the to approximately 5 years (Terman, literature; history and civics; and the
gifted group is indicated by the 1924a, 1924b, 1925). arts. Test results were compared to the
higher average of nutrition and Educational history was gath- test scores of unselected school chil-
by superior stability, physical ered from teachers and parents of dren. Across all ages and sexes, gifted
and mental. (as cited in Terman, children in the experimental group. children scored between three and
1925, p. 251) Teachers generally rated the work of four standard deviations above unse-
gifted students as superior to those in lected school children on measures of
[Dr. Bronson:] The examina- the same grade. Gifted students also achievement. On average, the gifted
tions of the gifted group were report changing schools at least twice
child exhibited mastery of subject mat-
the most satisfactory of any before age 8 and three times by age
ter 40% above his or her chronological
series of examinations I have 11. The majority of parents indicated
age while only being promoted 14%
conducted. The quickness of that their children enjoyed school and
above the norm for his or her chrono-
these children in comprehend- learned to read before starting school.
logical age. Children’s test scores were
ing what was desired of them in Nearly 20% reported that their child
appreciably higher than the teachers’
the various tests was a delight. learned to read before the age of 5.
ratings presented in the educational
Physically, also, the gifted child Seventy percent of the parents did not
progress section (Terman, 1925).
ranked above the average child place restrictions on a child’s advance-
Terman attributed this to teacher
of the community. (as cited in ment in school with 20% lobbying
underestimations or “low marks as
Terman, 1925, p. 251) for rapid advancement and only 10%
a penalty for lack of application to
holding a child back. Six and a half
Educational Progress hours a week were devoted to private the set tasks of the school” (Terman,
1925, p. 306). No correlation was
lessons and practice in subjects such
School progress and educational as music, language, or dance, and 2 shown between number of years of
history were natural topics for data col- hours per week were devoted to com- school and educational achievement.
lection. Terman argued that individual pleting homework. Parents reported Terman also described the Stanford
differences directly affected schooling signs of superior intelligence at age 3½ Achievement Test as “an excellent test
for gifted students (Terman, 1919). (Terman, 1925). Superior intelligence for use in the identification of gifted
continued on page ??
School progress, or progress quotient was described as “quick, understand- children” (Terman, 1925, p. 306).
gifted child today 31
Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius
Life Outside of School and 808 control children. Children by gifted students directly impacted
were asked to keep a reading log for the kind of education they received.
Terman also was interested in two months including all books read. Terman (1924a) declared,
gifted children’s familiarization Results indicated that gifted children
and interest in playing. The general read a greater variety of books than . . . the desirability of more rapid
belief was that gifted children devi- did control group children; however, advancement of the bright child.
ated tremendously from the norm in of the 20 best-liked books, all but one This is important. But grade
this area, spending the majority of was fiction. Only five books appeared skipping is far from an ideal or
their free time reading in solitude. on the best-liked list for each gender, complete solution of the prob-
Approximately 1,200 gifted children including Treasure Island, Call of the lem. The real need is for a differ-
were administered an eight-page Wild, Ivanhoe, Three Musketeers, and entiation of the curriculum and
booklet that delineated 90 games A Tale of Two Cities. Girls were more of methods such as will give to
into three categories: solitary games likely than boys to read a book more every child the type of diet from
(e.g., riding a bike), games that were than once. One unsurprising fact was which he can derive the maxi-
social but not always competitive that gifted children simply read more mum nourishment. (p. 364)
(e.g., follow the leader), and games books than control group children
that were somewhat social and quiet Like any pioneering endeavor,
(Terman, 1925).
(e.g., checkers). Children were asked Terman’s longitudinal study was
if they had ever played the game and flawed and has therefore experienced
Terman’s Legacy
if they played it well or not. They its share of criticism. Criticisms
were also given a multiple-choice sec- lodged against Terman’s study
Terman hoped that this body of
tion, in which a game was described are valid and some of these same
work would be considered a “founda-
and the child had to identify what issues continue to trouble the field.
tion of established truth” (Terman,
game it was. Further information was Beginning with the title of his work,
1925, p. 474) and would dispel the
obtained from the Home and School Genetic Studies of Genius, few of
myths and superstitions surrounding
Blanks. Gifted children preferred Terman’s subjects could be labeled
gifted children. Educational reform
activities that required thinking and geniuses. Genius was considered
could now be undertaken based on
were somewhat social and quiet. 180 IQ and above (Terman, 1930a).
scientifically verifiable facts. This
However, a high correlation was And, as his subsequent longitudinal
reform would include the identifica-
found among group members of the work revealed, many of his subjects
tion, preservation, and development
same gender (.80) with unlike gen- were highly accomplished but never
of gifted children’s exceptional abilities
ders’ correlation very low (.18–.35). achieved eminence in their field
(Burks, Jensen, & Terman, 1930).
A significant number of gifted chil- (Keating, 1991). Terman equated the
Terman’s study represented the
dren had imaginary playmates or greater number of males identified for
most ambitious and detailed gathering
lived in imaginary countries. Gifted the study as evidence to support his
children were sought out as com- of information regarding gifted stu- theory that males were more variable
panions in school at the same rate as dents. That work continues today with than females. This result may have
control group children despite being surviving subjects entering their 90s. been due to students initially being
much younger than their classmates Between 1921 and 1928, Terman was identified by teachers who gener-
(Terman, 1925). able to gather a multitude of informa- ally favored boys (Jolly, 2005). Data
Children and parents also were tion and make comparisons covering later showed that females did just as
asked to report on the children’s read- intellectual and achievement scores, well as males in academic concerns
ing interests and hours spent reading home and school environments, family but in different subject areas (Burks
(other than school work). Responding heredity, social interests, and person- et al., 1930). This initial study also
to these questions were 429 gifted and ality measures. He supplemented this overlooked the effects of sexism, dis-
401 control children. Many gifted information with case studies to pro- crimination, societal expectations,
children were reported to be voracious vide a more detailed picture of gifted stereotypes, and available opportuni-
readers from as early as the age of 5. children apart from a pure numbers ties for females (Jolly, 2005).
Additional data included a reading perspective. Terman also argued that Terman’s unyielding belief in sci-
record mailed from 511 gifted children the individual differences exhibited ence, perhaps led him to ignore some
32 winter 2008 • vol 31, no 1
Lewis Terman: Genetic Study of Genius
obvious discrepancies in his findings. broaden the definition of giftedness, Lagemann, E. C. (2000). An elusive science:
Terman held steadfast to the idea of the student population remains pre- The troubling history of education research.
hereditability rather than environ- dominantly White and often does not Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
ment (or a combination of the two) reflect the greater student population. Minton, H. L. (1988). Lewis Terman: Pio-
to explain superior intelligence or His recommendations for a differenti- neer in psychological testing. New York:
giftedness. On average, families in the ated curriculum have been heeded by New York University Press.
study reported higher annual incomes those in the field but find resistance Robinson, A., & Clinkenbeard, P. R.
and had completed twice as much when asked to be put into practice by (1998). Giftedness: An exceptionality
schooling than the average adult. Due administrators and teachers. examined. Annual Review of Psychology,
to their financial status and education, Despite inconsistencies and flaws, 49, 117–139.
one can assume that gifted subjects’ Terman’s work gave gifted education Seagoe, M. V. (1975). Terman and the gifted.
environments were more enriched and a foothold in academia and was rec- Los Altos, CA: William Kaufmann.
that they were provided experiences ognized as a legitimate field of study. Terman, L. M. (1913). Psychological
outside of the home. Over the past 80 years, his work has principles underlying the Binet-Simon
Many of Terman’s conclusions were given those in the field direction and Scale and some practical considerations
contradictory to even his own upbring- continues to shape research studies for its correct use. Journal of Psycho-
ing. One may assume that Terman was and classroom practices. GCT Asthenics, 18, 93–104.
gifted in his own right, considering that Terman, L. M. (1915). The mental
he had been promoted three grades References hygiene of exceptional children. Peda-
within the first 3 months of formalized gogical Seminary, 22, 529–537.
schooling at the age of 6. In addition, Terman, L. M. (1919). The intelligence
Burks, B. S., Jensen, D. W., & Terman,
due to his family’s farming obligations, L. M. (1930). Genetic studies of genius: of school children. Boston: Houghton
he was only able to attend school 5 to Volume III. The promise of youth: Fol- Mifflin.
6 months out of the year. He readily low-up studies of a thousand gifted chil- Terman, L. M. (1924a). The conserva-
admitted to being from unremarkable dren. Stanford University, CA: Stanford tion of talent. School and Society, 19,
ancestry, unlike many subjects in the University Press. 359–364.
longitudinal study who could name Chapman, P. D. (1988). Schools as sorters: Terman, L. M. (1924b). Tests and mea-
relatives that held places of prominence Lewis M. Terman, applied psychology, surements of gifted children. Washing-
and the intelligence testing movement,
in politics and academia. His great ton Education Journal, 3, 172–190.
1890–1930. New York: New York
faith in nature over nurture is also con- Terman, L. M. (1925). Genetic studies of
University Press.
tradicted by his childhood home envi- genius: Volume I. Mental and physical
Davis, G. A., & Rimm, S. A. (2004).
ronment, which was filled with a great traits of a thousand gifted children. Palo
Education of the gifted and talented (5th
number of books (150–200 by his esti- Alto, CA: Stanford University Press.
ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
mation). Also, as one of 14 siblings, his Terman, L. M. (1930a). Autobiography
Feldhusen, J. F. (2003). Lewis M. Ter-
older siblings and their interests greatly man: A pioneer in the development of of Lewis M. Terman. In C. Murchison
influenced him (Terman, 1930b). ability tests. In B. J. Zimmerman & (Ed.), History of psychology in autobiog-
Other criticisms lodged against D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Educational psy- raphy, Vol. 2 (pp. 297–331). Worcester,
Terman include an overreliance on chology: A century of contributions (pp. MA: Clark University Press.
genetic factors to account for intel- 155–170). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Terman, L. M. (1930b). Talent and genius
ligence; the fact that socioeconomic Erlbaum Associates. in children. In V. F. Calverton & S. D.
status was not controlled for; the Jolly, J. L. (2005). “The woman question”: Schmalhausen (Eds.), The new gen-
An historical overview of the education
sample, being predominantly White, eration (pp. 405–423). New York: The
of gifted girls. In S. K. Johnsen & J.
middle-class, and Jewish, was not rep- Macaulay Company.
Kendrick (Eds.), Teaching and counsel-
resentative of the overall population in Unknown correspondent. (1921). The
ing gifted girls (pp. 3–8). Waco, TX:
California at the time; and the use of study of gifted students. School and
Prufrock Press.
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gifted child today 33