ERIC EJ740959: Brain Research: Implications to Diverse Learners

2005·0.18 MB·English

by  ERIC

Gerry M. Madrazo, Jr. and LaMoine L. Motz
Brain Research:
Implications to Diverse Learners
A growing understanding of the way the brain functions offers new insights
into the minds of students at all stages of development.
This decade marks one of the theaters of the brain (Ratey, 2002); 1997; and Mack, 2003. According to
most productive eras of neurological and a “celebration of neurons—an Zadina (2004), the goals for studying
research, which offers exciting educator’s guide to the human brain” brain research include (1) reaching
opportunities for the educational (Sylwester, 2001). The literature on as many children as possible, (2)
enhancement of our classrooms. The brain-based education is quickly teaching to individual differences, (3)
latest research is being embraced emerging, and several studies make diversifying teaching strategies, and
by progressive educational systems direct connections between the biology (4) maximizing the brain’s natural
and the necessary means for positive of the human brain and teaching and learning processes.
reforms are already beginning to be learning (Caine and Caine, 1991,
Diversity in Brain
implemented. A brain-based education 1997; Greenenough, et al., 1993;
uses research in neuroscience on Kotulak, 1997; Majoy, 1993; Pinker, Development
how the brain works to gain an 1997; Zadina, 2004; and Zull, 2002). Learning, as a brain function, is
understanding of how students Significant work by Petitto (2003) a biological process invented for
learn and develop in a classroom. and other brain researchers led to the survival. It is the organism responding
Psychology and neuroscience have discovery of brain tissues related to to its environment. Indeed, learning
finally begun to merge to combine the biology of language and learning. is the formation of new synapses
how the mind learns, absorbs and Indeed, neurolinguistic studies enable and dentrite branching (Zull, 2002).
thinks with how the brain functions educators in a multilingual setting to Moreover, multiple intelligences guru,
and develops. New research bridges understand and apply strategies of Howard Gardner (1993), describes
gaps between incomplete conceptions teaching and learning—for example, intelligence as the biopsychological
of the brain such as those involving in teaching English as a second potential to process information
the popular “right brain versus left language (Dehaene, 1999; Dhority and in certain ways in order to solve
brain” theory. Current developments Jensen, 1998; Fabbro, 2001; Genesee problems or fashion products that are
in neuroscience allow for a new (2000); Hernandez, et al., 2000; Kuhl, valued in a culture or community.
appreciation of the complexity and Certainly, intelligence is a brain-body-
individuality with which human beings environment structure and function
learn and grow. system. Zull (2002) further adds: “we
Our brains are
Brain-based research deals with don’t actually know what students will
classroom-relevant concerns, such as fascinating, intricate need in the curriculum. Those needs
sensory perception, attention, memory, change and are changing more rapidly
structures, with unique
and how emotions affect learning each decade. But what will not change
complexities that
(Goleman, 1995; LeDoux, 1996; Pert, is biology. The brain becomes the
1997; and Sprenger, 1999). Similar continue to marvel determining factor in thinking about
studies describe the brain’s “ways of education for this very reason.” He
researchers and
seeing one’s self” (Godwin, 2000); concludes: “the curriculum should
perception, attention, and the four teachers alike. enable the firing of the right networks
56 SCIENCE EDUCATOR
and neurons (lesson strategies), create enhance classroom environments in
repeated firings (practice) and should many ways. One important practice is
make the learner feel good.” Although lecture to link the indoors with outdoors for
Our brains are fascinating, intricate movement to stimulate the uptake of
continues to be the
structures, with unique complexities oxygen, which has a positive effect
most widely used
that continue to marvel researchers on learning. Another is to create a
and teachers alike. Altogether, the method in the class- rich stimulating environment through
human brain contains 100 billion hands-on activities and classrooms
room, countless studies
nerve cells that make 1,000 trillion with rich colors, textures, and students’
indicate that students
synaptic connection points with work to indicate “ownership” of
one another (D’Arcangelo, 1998). retain the most by knowledge (Lackney, 1998). Earlier
We are constantly organizing and studies by Greenenough, et al., (1993)
teaching others,
reorganizing our brains, changing both and Karni, et al. (1995), indicated that
the physical structure of the brain and practicing by doing, an enriched (stimulating) environment
the knowledge we hold (Bransford and and discussing in affects growth in the brain.
Cocking, eds, 2000). Young minds
groups.
in particular hold great potential, as Diverse, Experiential Approach to
new learning windows of opportunity Teaching and Learning
quickly present themselves and Memory is reassembled from many
children acquire new knowledge the most widely used method in the locations in the brain. The brain seems
at a remarkable rate. Amidst this classroom, countless studies indicate to sort information in where (dorsal)
complexity, researchers have found that students retain the most by and what (ventral) pathways. Zadina
information on the brain that can teaching others, practicing by doing, (2004) suggests engaging students in
bring wonderful new insight to our and discussing in groups. Immediate, multiple pathways by using language,
classrooms. active use of learning is clearly the sensory motor activities, metaphor,
In children, the stages of learning best means of retaining information humor, spatial-temporal activities,
and development manifest themselves (Sousa, 1995). In addition, students music and emotion. Furthermore,
through the ability to make connections have peak and low times during the day using language—which, by the way,
and construct patterns. Lawrence and the course of lessons in which they is our best form of communication—
Lowery (1990) has explored the tend to take in the most information activates the frontal lobes. Teachers
ways children seek patterns as a towards the beginning of lessons, need to apply multiple strategies and
means of explaining how humans and then experience “down time” opportunities for oral communication
develop mentally. He believes when retention decreases (Sousa). (talking, listening, reading) as well
that understanding means to know Therefore, shorter, diverse lessons as written ways of communication
relationships, that the ability to with different means of instruction (reading and writing). Gopnick, et al.
know relationships depends on prior may be much more effective than an (1999), observe that the brain seems
knowledge. As learners construct an ongoing lecture environment. As a “to love to learn from other people!”
understanding of themselves, they corollary, sleep (resting the brain) is Although lecturing continues to be
advance from viewing a single object critical in consolidating learning. the most widely employed method
and discarding it, grouping two objects Finally, classroom setting and the in classrooms across the country, re-
with a single attribute, grouping emotions of students play significant search on the way we learn indicates
multiple objects, and eventually roles in the ability to learn. Experiences that lecturing is not always very ef-
logically organizing and reorganizing generate emotions, which bring fective. Several additional strategies
objects based on need and criteria, and relevancy and meaning to students should be employed to maximize the
using hierarchical standards. (Jensen, 1998). Teaching tied to amount students retain. Construct-
Research on memory and retention positive emotional experiences will ivism encourages learning through
is also a vital asset to teachers. lead students to generate new thought interaction to develop a personal
Although lecture continues to be and motivation to learn. Teachers can understanding of information. The fun-
SPRING 2005 VOL. 14, NO. 1 57
Recent research in learning styles self-examination and a greater overall
examines the different ways in understanding of a student’s individual
Teaching tied to which individuals learn and process role in his or her learning process.
information and acquire new skills. The closely related theory of “Wait
positive emotional
Clearly, the concepts of right and Time” is based on the idea that students
experiences will lead
left hemisphere processing are also need time to individually process what
students to generate relevant to these theories of learning. they have learned. Teachers must
Moreover, Perini, et al. (1997), encourage this “processing” time
new thought and
advocate integrating learning styles instead of automatically asking their
motivation to learn. and multiple intelligences. In addition, students to repeat back information
learning styles may be influenced they have just covered or heard in
damental concept of constructivism by such factors as age, gender and lecture. Recent studies also indicate
is that the basis for all learning is dis- cultural background. Evidence shows that the brain seems to exhibit
covery. Piaget (1973) writes: “to un- students achieve more in a shorter plasticity (Gage, et al., 1999)—and
derstand is to discover, or reconstruct amount of time when teachers know one way this is demonstrated is through
by discovery, and such conditions how to teach to the students’ individual “experiential learning.” This means
must be complied with if in the future learning styles. Teachers must cater that the brain has the ability to change
individuals are to be formed who are to the learning styles and diversity as a result of rich experience through
capable of production and creativity of learners. This requires constant
and not simple repetition.” Student attention to elements such as noise
initiated experimentation and inven- and music, light, social structure,
tion are encouraged in a diverse, mobility, and the design of the
Evidence shows
constructivist and experiential class- classroom. The presence of different
room. Open-ended questioning is learning styles indicates the need students achieve more
valued because it allows for reflective to create opportunities for diverse in a shorter amount
thought, creative response, and unique learning experiences. It is evident that
of time when teachers
commentary. Finally, students are al- sensory information and the classroom
lowed to process and challenge the atmosphere significantly contribute to know how to teach to
information they hear or seek though the way students learn.
the students’ individual
personal discovery. These methods al-
Reflective Teaching and Learning
learning styles.
low students to make “sense” of what
and the Concept of “Wait Time”
they learn in class and to give the new
Another concept, the idea of
information meaning.
reflective teaching and learning, active, personal and engaging learning
Learning Styles: Teaching to maintains that students learn by activities.
Diversity reviewing and reflecting on their
Tileston (2000) indicates that work, not simply by just completing Conclusion
the best teaching practices that a task or listening to a lecture. A growing understanding of the
define teaching competencies relate Techniques including keeping journals way the brain functions offers new
brain research, learning styles, and and preparing portfolios reveal insights into the minds of students at all
standards-based education. A student’s the progress of a student while stages of development. Unfortunately,
Learning Style can be defined as allowing the student to develop a curriculum often mismatches content
“the way that he or she concentrates sense of pride in his or her work. A and teaching practices with the
on, processes, internal-izes, and new method involving videotaping thinking and learning processes of
remembers new and difficult academic classes, especially group situations, students. Teachers must promote
information or skills” (Shaughnessy, devotes time to a student’s personal active learning through incorporation
1998). reflection. Reflective learning methods of research on brain-based education
provide a valuable opportunity for and the corresponding academic
58 SCIENCE EDUCATOR
needs of the student. “The teacher is Fabbro, F. (2001). The bilingual brain: Kotulak, R. (1997). Inside the Brain:
a reflective practitioner and decision Cerebral representation of languages. Revolutionary Discoveries of How the
maker. Teachers must understand the Brain and Language, 79, 211-222. Mind Works. Kansas City: Andrews
Gage, F., Battro, A., Gould, E. and Rakic, P. McMeel Publishing.
theories, continue to study them, reflect
(1999). Neuronal Plasticity. Science. Kuhl, P.K. (1997). A new view of lan-
upon them, and make appropriate
Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple guage acquisition. Proceedings of the
applications for their own students
Intelligences: The Theory in Practice. National Academy of Sciences of the
and their own situations” (Guild,
New York: BasicBooks. United States of America, 97, 11850-
1997). Advancements in neurological
Genesee, F. (2000). Brain research: Impli- 11857.
science and the growing understanding cations for second language learning. Lackney, J. (1998). Twelve Design Prin-
of the interconnectedness of the brain (Rep. No. EDO-FL-00-12). Santa Cruz, ciples Based on Brain-Based Learning
and mind present new possibilities CA: Office of Educational Research Research. Summary from CEFPI Con-
that can lead to the enhancement and Improvement, Washington, D.C. ference Workshop. Minneapolis, MN.
of the quality of instruction for all Godwin, M. (2000). Who Are You? <www.designshare.com/Research/>.
101 Ways of Seeing Yourself. New LeDoux, J. (1996). The Emotional Brain.
students. The knowledge of how
York: Penguin Books. The Mysterious Underpinnings of
students pay attention, take in new
Goleman, D. (1995). Emotional Intelli- Emotional Life. New York: Simon
information, process that information,
gence. Why It Can Matter More Than and Schuster.
and then store knowledge in memory
IQ. New York: Bantam Books. Lowery, Lawrence F. (1990). The Biologi-
is crucial for teachers. In addition,
Gopnick, A., Meltzoff, A.N., & Kuhl, cal Basis of Thinking and Learning.
practices using areas such as Learning P.K. (1999). The Scientist in the Berkeley, CA: University of California
Styles, Constructivism, and Reflective Crib: Minds, Brains, and How Chil- Press.
Teaching (Wait-time) are all valuable dren Learn. New York: William Mor- Mack, M. (2003). The phonetic sys-
applications of the research and practice row & Company. tems of bilinguals. In M.T. Banich
of brain-compatible learning. Greenenough, W.T., Black, J.E., & Wal- & M. Mack (Eds.). Mind, Brain,
lace, C.S. (1993). Experience and and Language: Multidisciplinary
References brain development. IN: M. John- Perspectives (pp.109-149). Mahwah,
son (Ed), Brain Development and NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bransford, B. and Cocking, E., ed. (2000).
Cognition: A Reader (pp.290-322). Majoy, P. (1993). Doorways to Learning.
How People Learn: Brain, Mind,
Oxford: Blackwell. A Model for Developing the Brain’s full
Experience and School. Washington,
Guild, Pat Burke. (1997). “Where do the Potential. Tucson: Zephyr.
D.C.: National Academy Press.
Learning Theories Overlap?” Educa- Perini, M., Silver, H., and Strong, R..
Caine, R.N. & Caine, G. (1991). Mak-
tional Leadership. 55: (30). (1997). “Integrating Learning Styles
ing Connections: Teaching and the
Hernandez, A.E., Martinez, A., & Kohnert, and Multiple Intelligences.” Educa-
Human Brain. Menlo Park: Addison
K. (2000). In search of the language tional Leadership. 55:(22).
Wesley.
switch: An fMRI study of picture Pert, C.B. (1997). Molecules of
Caine, R.N. & Caine, G. (1997). Edu-
naming in Spanish-English bilinguals. Emotion: the Science Behind Mind-
cation on the Edge of Possibility.
Brain and Language, 73, 421-431. Body Medicine. New York: Simon &
Alexandria: Association for Supervi-
Jensen, Eric. (1998). Teaching with the Schuster.
sion and Curriculum Development.
Brain in Mind. Association for Super- Pinker, S. (1997). How the Mind Works.
D’Arcangelo, Marcia. (1998). The Brains
vision and Curriculum Development: New York: W.W. Norton & Com-
Behind the Brain. taken from the ASCD
Alexandria, VA: Association for Su- pany.
web site <www.ascd.org/readingroom/
pervision and Curriculum. Petitto, L. (2003). What Teachers of ELLs
edlead/9811/darcangelo.html>.
Karni, A., Meyer, G., Jezzard, P., Adams, Need to Know about Language De-
Dehaene, S. (1999). Fitting two lan-
M., Turner, R. and Ungerleider, L. velopment. A Presentation at the U.S.
guages into one brain. Brain, 122,
(1995), Functional MRI evidence for Department of Education Office of
2207-2208.
adult motor cortex plasticity during English Language Acquisition Summit
Dhority, L.F. & Jensen, E. (1998). Joyful
motor skill learning. Nature, 377, Conference, Washington, D.C.
Fluency: Brain-compatible Second
155-158. Piaget, M. (1973). To Understand is to
Language Acquisition. San Diego: The
Invent. New York: Grossman.
Brain Store, Inc.
SPRING 2005 VOL. 14, NO. 1 59
Ratey, J.J. (2002). A User’s Guide to the Sprenger, M. (1999). Learning and Zull, J.E. (2002). The Art of Changing
Brain: Perception, Attention, and the Memory: the Brain in Action. As- the Brain: Enriching the Practice of
Four Theaters of the Brain. Vintage sociation for Supervision and Cur- Teaching by Exploring the Biology
Books. riculum Development: Alexandria, of Learning. Herndon, VA: Stylus
Shaughnessy, Michael F. (1998). “An In- VA: Association for Supervision and Publishing, Inc.
terview with Rita Dunn about Learning Curriculum Development.
Styles.” The Clearing House. Jan-Feb Tileston, D.W. (2000). Ten Best Teach- Gerry M. Madrazo, Jr. is an Educational
1998 v71 n3 (p141). Sylwester, R. ing Practices: How Brain Research, Specialists, Hawaii Department of Education,
(2001). learning Styles, and Standards Define Honolulu, HI. Correspondence concerning
this article may be sent to <Gerry_Madrazo
A Celebration of Neurons: An Edu- Teaching Competencies. Thousand
@notes.k12.hi.us>.
cator’s Guide to the Human Brain. Oaks, CA: Corwin Press, Inc.
Alexandria: Association for Supervi- Zadina, J.N. (2004). Brain Research-
sion and Curriculum Development. Based Effectives Strategies to Enhance
Sousa, David A. (1995). How the Brain Learning and Energize Instruction. A
Learns. Reston, VA: National Associa- presentation at the U.S. Department of
tion of Secondary School Principals. Education Office of English Language
Acquisition Summit Conference.
60 SCIENCE EDUCATOR