ERIC EJ724879: Media Literacy Education: No Longer a Curriculum Option

2004·0.04 MB·English

by  ERIC

Media Literacy Education:
No Longer a Curriculum Option
by David L. Martinson
When he saw the blood, it was as drawn the roar of excitement from the
though he had drunk a deep draught crowd. The din had pierced his ears and
of savage passion. Instead of turning forced him to open his eyes, laying his
away, he fixed his eyes upon the scene soul open to receive the wound which
and drank in all its frenzy. . . . He struck it down.
watched and grew hot with excitement,
and when he left, . . . he carried away Concerns about the impact of violence
with him a diseased mind which would and what many view as other forms of so-
leave him no peace. cially dysfunctional entertainment did not
begin with the arrival of the Internet, tech-
Is this passage the reflection of a men- nologically sophisticated video games, or
tal health professional after examining a cable television. DeFleur and Dennis (1998,
person exposed to excessive amounts of 432) pointed out that once motion pictures
television violence? The words of a dis- moved beyond the novelty stage in the late
traught parent describing the antisocial 1920s, “the public . . . (became) uneasy
behavior of a child who that parent believes about the influence of movies on children.”
spent too many hours “playing” violent By 1929, an estimated 40 million minors
video games? The expressions of a law en- saw a movie at least once weekly and crit-
forcement official trying to explain the lat- ics were concerned. Was this new technol-
est incident in which a seemingly normal ogy (DeFleur and Dennis 1998, 432) “de-
teenager felt the urge to bring a weapon to stroying parents’ control over their children
school? . . . and teaching immorality?” It is note-
Not at all. St. Augustine wrote these worthy that “films with unwholesome
words to describe the experience of a young themes—horror, crime, immoral relation-
friend pressured into attending a gladiator
David L. Martinson,
fight. Augustine’s friend entered the arena
Professor in the School of
against his will and “was determined to
Journalism and Mass
have nothing to do with these atrocities”
Communication at Florida
(Bok 1998, 30). However, he could not block
International University,
out the sounds of the crowd and temptation
has taught at the collegiate
overcame him. As a result (Bok 1998, 30): level for more than 30
years. He has written
He opened his eyes, and his soul extensively on issues
was stabbed with a wound more piti- germane to social studies education at the
fully than the man whose fall had secondary school level.
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PERSPECTIVES
ships, and illegal use of alcohol (during create the right message with the right
prohibition)—were especially troubling” media mix, one could get the masses to fol-
(DeFleur and Dennis 1998, 432). Public low heedlessly” (Hiebert and Gibbons 2000,
worry about the effect of the new motion- 126). From a connotative perspective,
picture technology was so great that the “the symbolism . . . is apparent—the me-
first major studies of mass media effects dia are a dangerous drug or a killing force
were organized to ex- that directly and im-
amine the impact of mediately penetrate
movies on society, par- a person’s system”
ticularly young people. (Baran 1999, 318).
The techniques re- The public’s fears
searchers used, in what about the power of
While media may not be that
came to be known as the media, particu-
the Payne Fund Stud- successful in telling larly the new tech-
ies (1933–35), often- nologies like radio
individuals what to think, it
times lacked sophisti- and television, were
cation. The reported may be influential in telling seemingly confirmed
results of these stud- one evening in 1938
them what to think about.
ies, however, were ac- during a radio broad-
cepted by many “with- cast. On that even-
out question, mainly ing, a young Orson
because they were the Welles presented a
first major studies of production of War of
media effects, and the the Worlds by H. G.
results were widely reported” (Biagi 1999, Wells on CBS’s radio program Mercury The-
271). Yes, there was criticism of the method- ater of the Air. The play “was so realistically
ology among sophisticated researchers. presented in a ‘newscast’ format that . . .
Scholars point out, however, that “the public many listeners who tuned in late missed
did not care about these controversies. They the information that it was only a play. They
were frightened by the results” (DeFleur and thought that Martian monsters were tak-
Dennis 1998, 432). To the general public, “the ing over” (DeFleur and Dennis 1998, 435).
technical criticisms of research procedures One woman in New York said, “I never
seemed . . . like debates over fine points of hugged my radio so closely . . . [and]
navigation conducted while the ship was prayed while looking out my open window
sinking. Above all, the overall results of the to get a faint whiff of gas so that I would
Payne Fund Studies seemed to confirm the know when to close my window and her-
charges of critics of the movies and the worst metically seal my room with waterproof ce-
fears of parents” (DeFleur and Dennis 1998, ment or anything else I could get ahold of”
432-33). (Vivian 1991, 294).
The radio broadcast “has been called
THE MAGIC BULLET THEORY the most famous of all radio entertainment
Results like those reported by the programs” (Whetmore 1995, 122). As noted,
Payne Fund Studies appeared to support it clearly seemed to indicate to many the
the magic-bullet or hypodermic-needle awesome power of the new broadcast tech-
theory of mass media impact. Many people nology because “no newspaper or maga-
assumed, for example, that “if one could zine had the ability to evoke such immedi-
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MARTINSON
ate emotional response” (Whetmore 1995, known as the limited-effects perspective
122). Nevertheless, as scholars have which held that “most people are sheltered
pointed out, not everyone panicked. If the from direct manipulation . . . [from the
magic-bullet theory was correct, something media] by their family, friends, coworkers,
resembling universal hysteria should have and social groups. People don’t believe
occurred. After all, creatures from outer everything they hear or see in the media . . .
space that apparently had the capacity to [but instead] turn to others for advice and
destroy civilization were invading earth. In critical interpretation” (Baran and Davis
fact, based on research conducted after the 2000, 132). In short, the researchers saw the
broadcast, individuals like social psycholo- media as but one variable in the process of
gist Hadley Cantril “concluded that ‘criti- opinion formation and change.
cal ability’ was the most significant vari-
able related to the response people made ASKING THE WRONG QUESTIONS?
to the broadcast” (DeFleur and Dennis For many, any suggestion “that the
1998, 437). More particularly, “those high mass media ordinarily did not have any
in critical ability tended not to believe the effects, just did not seem very reasonable”
broadcast was real. They were more likely (Severin and Tankard 1992, 209). Certainly
to be able to sort out the situation” (DeFleur those who have “even an elementary ac-
and Dennis 1998, 437). Researchers took quaintance with recent American history
note that “statistical data obtained from CBS must reach . . . a conclusion that, frequently,
revealed that the amount of education was the media have had very powerful influ-
the single best factor in predicting whether ences on a number of social and cultural
people would check the broadcast against situations, trends, and processes” (DeFleur
other sources of information” (DeFleur and and Dennis 1998, 459).
Dennis 1998, 438). Here, then, is the dilemma. Credible—
scientifically based—research clearly indi-
LIMITED (INSIGNIFICANT) MEDIA EFFECTS? cated that the mass media have limited
Though many laypersons continue to impact. Was that research wrong? Such a
cite Orson Welles’ 1938 broadcast as evi- conclusion, noted DeFleur and Dennis
dence of the powerful effect of media, re- (1998, 459), “would contradict . . . [any]
search has shown otherwise. Paradoxically, claim that science reveals trustworthy
reaction to the War of the Worlds program knowledge.” The answer to this dilemma,
became the turning point that eventually they argued, rests in an acknowledgement
led the vast majority of media scholars to that “the media do have weak effects, but
reject the magic-bullet (powerful effects) . . . [that] they also have powerful ef-
model. fects”(459). Conceding their statement may
In light of research by Cantril and oth- sound like impossible double talk, they
ers, a paradigm shift in mass communica- contended that “the key to understanding
tion theory had taken place by the 1940s this seemingly irreconcilable puzzle lies in
and 1950s. Researchers came to perceive recognizing the difference between short-
that the “media rarely had powerful, direct term effects on individuals and long-term
influence on individuals . . . [but instead] influence on beliefs, attitudes, and behavior
the effects were quite limited in scope— that can change shared cultural norms and
affecting only a few people or influencing social institutions in society at large” (459).
rather trivial thoughts or actions” (Baran Illustrative of this point is research con-
and Davis 2000, 122). This concept became ducted by George Gerbner, the developer
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of the area of communication research Mass media is no magic bullet; however,
known as cultivation theory; research, it media effects cannot be ignored. It seems
must be noted, that has been criticized evident that “in contemporary society . . .
strongly in some quarters. His research sug- (the) media play a central part in the over-
gested that the mass media, particularly all socialization process by which individu-
television, has a cultivation effect which als obtain their personal understandings of
“constructs a reality of the world that, al- their culture and their knowledge of their
though possibly inaccurate, becomes ac- social order” (DeFleur and Dennis 1998,
cepted simply because we as a culture be- 489). One might argue, in fact, that this “so-
lieve it to be true” (Baran 1999, 333). Indeed, cialization shapes everyone’s patterns of
studies have indicated that television cul- perception, thought and action” (DeFleur
tivates our views with regard to questions and Dennis 1998, 489).
“such as beauty, sex roles, religion, the ju- To understand and respond intelli-
dicial process, and marriage. . . . Television gently to the media under such circum-
cultivates realities, especially for heavy stances requires a media literate popula-
viewers” (Baran 1999, 333). When asked, tion. Schools in the United States and
for example, “Can people be trusted?” . . . abroad can and must play a central role in
heavy television viewers are more likely developing a society literate about mass
than light viewers to check a response such media. They must teach young people the
as “Can’t be too careful” (Severin and Tan- intellectual skills they will need to compre-
kard 1992, 249). Research suggested “that hend and appreciate mass media’s role and
heavy television viewers are getting a impact (both better and worse) in an in-
heightened sense of risk and insecurity creasingly complex, economically, and
from television . . . [and that it] may be lead- technologically driven society.
ing heavy viewers to perceive a ‘mean
world’” (Severin and Tankard 1992, 249). SCHOOLS AND MEDIA LITERACY
Another line of research contends that, We are entering a new media age. As
while the media may not be that success- media scholar James Carey (1998, 34) as-
ful in telling individuals what to think, it serted, new communication opportunities
may be influential in telling them what to created by technologies such as satellite
think about. This line of research argues transmission and the Internet represent a
that the media may have considerable movement “from a modern to a
power in setting the agenda. What, for ex- postmodern organization of communica-
ample, are the issues that citizens perceive tion.” Carey (1998, 33) argued that we are
most important when they cast their bal- in the midst of a “communication revolu-
lots on Election Day? Very likely, those is- tion . . . whose . . . dynamic is at the global
sues highlighted by the media are a signifi- rather than the national level, a revolution
cant determinant. The media may be very producing, in the words of the former chair-
influential in suggesting which issues man of Citicorp, ‘the twilight of sover-
people believe they should consider impor- eignty.’” In other words, as we enter this
tant in the process of deciding how to cast postmodern era, we may find that even
that vote. politics will be practiced at a global rather
One might propose that contemporary than national-state level.
research into mass media effects has re- “Interestingly, and of concern, Carey
vealed an extremely complex picture— (1998, 34) cautioned that the end point of
about which simple answers do not exist. all these changes is quite uncertain. He
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noted that “it could all turn out badly . . . or secondary school journalism course dur-
We should remind ourselves that the cul- ing which the teacher is most concerned
minating event of the communications about getting the school yearbook or stu-
revolution of the 1890s [which he cites as dent newspaper published on time
beginning the modern era of communica- (Martinson 1993). More specifically, genu-
tions] came when the guns of August ine movement toward meeting such edu-
sounded in 1914 and the twentieth century cational objectives depends on:
really began” (Carey • educators recog-
1998, 34). nizing that it is important
If schools are to for students, and ulti-
meet the challenges mately society, for
presented during schools to engage in me-
this revolutionary dia literacy programs;
A commitment to aiding
postmodern era of and
communication, the the development of a • educators—par-
entire educational es- ticularly school admin-
media-literate population
tablishment—school istrators and bureau-
administrators, bu- must become a central crats—acknowledging
reaucrats, teachers, that such an effort will
and colleges of educa- priority. require resources—re-
tion—must be com- sources they must be
mitted to responding willing to provide.
in an anticipatory and One legitimately
creative manner. A might ask where, in the
commitment to aiding curriculum, would or
the development of a media-literate popu- should media literacy instruction be
lation must become a central priority. placed? I have suggested that optimally “all
A “media literacy” program, according high schools should have at least one spe-
to Art Silverblatt, includes five key elements cific course . . . focusing on . . . [media lit-
(Baran and Davis 2000, 359); these elements eracy] (Martinson 1993, 126). I further
will help develop in students: maintained that such a course “should be
1. an awareness of the impact of the a graduation requirement for all students .
media on the individual and society; . . [and that it] must be a vigorous and de-
2. an understanding of the process of manding academic exercise” (126).
mass communication; If budget and other academic or cur-
3. the development of strategies with riculum restraints make it impossible to de-
which to analyze and discuss media velop and establish a specific media literacy
messages; course, then media literacy instruction
4. an awareness of media content as must be built consciously and specifically
“text” that provides insight into our con- into existing curriculum. It cannot be an
temporary culture and ourselves; and add-on or afterthought. Schools can accom-
5. the cultivation of an enhanced enjoy- plish this integration in either of two ways:
ment, understanding, and appreciation of 1. Media literacy education can be des-
media content. ignated as a major component in one exist-
It should be obvious that these sugges- ing course or
tions go well beyond the traditional middle 2. Media literacy education can be
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PERSPECTIVES
smaller, but significant, components of sev- Finally, the importance of schools
eral courses. implementing a genuine program to build
It is essential that, above all else, the per- media literacy should become more appar-
son or persons assigned to teach media-re- ent if one considers yet another emerging
lated material be qualified. Resources are key. media theory. Called media information de-
School administrators must find—and be pendency theory, it maintains “that we live
willing to pay—persons who have authentic in a society in which networks of inter-
expertise in contemporary mass communi- personal ties are not as deeply established
cation issues if instruction is to be relevant as they once were” (DeFleur and Dennis
and educationally fruitful. Honesty forces 1998, 3). In earlier eras, individuals were
one to admit that, in the past, “too frequently more likely “to pursue similar ways of life
persons . . . [were] assigned to teach particu- and . . . [were] linked to word-of-mouth net-
lar courses because the administrator . . . works of extended families, deeply-estab-
[needed] to place a football or basketball lished friendships, long-term neighbors
coach in a course that the administrator . . . and other social ties from which they . . .
[believed required] little academic back- [could] obtain the information they need”
ground and minimal daily preparation” (DeFleur and Dennis 1998, 3).
(Martinson 1993, 127). Consequently, since a In contemporary times, in contrast,
coach likely saw “the daily newspaper and . “people of many diverse backgrounds live
. . [watched] the evening news . . . [that quali- in physical proximity to each other, but with
fied him] to teach a course in the mass me- extensive differences based on ethnicity, race,
dia” (Martinson 1993, 127). education, income, religion, and other char-
acteristics” (DeFleur and Dennis 1998, 3). In
PERCEPTION, TRUTH, AND such an environment, people “become de-
MEDIA SOUND BITES pendent on . . . [the media] for information
Establishing a curriculum program in needed to make many kinds of decisions”;
media literacy education is important. In a so much so, in fact, that increasingly they turn
postmodern era and new millennium, com- to the outlets of mass communications “to
munication and its technology play an in- find someone to date or even marry”
creasingly important role. Therefore, it is (DeFleur and Dennis 1998, 3).
imperative that young people be prepared This article began with a quotation
for that reality. from St. Augustine in which he expressed
We should not spend too much time concern about the media violence of his
looking at the trees as we ignore the forest. time—gladiator games. Bok (1998, 31)
Mass media’s influence and effect on glo- pointed out St. Augustine’s main concerns:
bal society is complex. In the political pro-
cess, for example, students must under- [about] the nature of the harm
stand how new media technologies imputed to . . . [the] spectators them-
challenge the very manner in which we selves—to their souls . . . and the
select our nation’s leaders. Assuming truth risks that spectators thus debilitated
in that assertion, educators must ask what might pose to others. Are they ren-
the point is in having students “memorize dered more uncaring about suffering
Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address if as a result of having partaken of car-
it would be impossible for Lincoln to be nage as entertainment, more pitiless,
elected [in the postmodern communica- perhaps even more easily moved to
tions era]” (Martinson 1993, 126). aggression?
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MARTINSON
The same questions need to be asked tent” (DeFleur and Dennis 1998, 454).
today—particularly in light of the in- Media have the potential to serve or
creasingly important role the instruments malign contemporary society and its in-
of mass communication are playing in dividuals. How do we help choose
our postmodern society. Media scholars media’s purposes? Baran and Davis
understand that a teenager viewing a vio- (2000, 358) point to education: “The best
lent program on television most likely way to ensure functional (rather than
will not leave the comforts of the living dysfunctional) use of media is to increase
room and attempt to recreate that stylized individuals’ media use skills.” Our
mayhem. Yet, sources as credible as the schools have enormous opportunity and
U.S. Surgeon General contend “. . . there responsibility in this regard. That obliga-
is no longer any question that a relation- tion will be met only if the entire educa-
ship exists between the exposure to vio- tional establishment recognizes the chal-
lent television programs and increased lenge, responds, and, just as importantly,
tendencies toward aggressive behavior commits the resources required to fulfill
among individuals viewing such con- that responsibility.
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literacy and culture. Mountain View, Calif.: Mayfield. for a changing world. Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum
Baran, S. J. , and D. K. Davis. 2000. Mass communication theory: Associates, Inc.
Foundations, ferment, and future. Belmont, Calif.: Martinson, D. L. 1993. Redirect secondary school journal-
Wadsworth. ism education by focusing on first amendment con-
Biagi, S. 1999. Media impact: An introduction to mass media. cerns. Contemporary Education 64(2): 125–27.
Belmont, Calif.: Wadsworth. Severin, W. J., and J. W. Tankard. 1992. Communication theo-
Bok, S. 1998. Mayhem: Violence as public entertainment. New ries: Origins, methods, and uses in the mass media. White
York: Perseus Publishing. Plains, N.Y.: Longman.
Carey, J. W. 1998. The Internet and the end of the national Vivian, J. 1991. The media of mass communication. Boston: Allyn
communication system: Uncertain predictions of an and Bacon.
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Quarterly 75(1): 28–34. and consequence of mass communication. Belmont, Calif.:
DeFleur, M. L., and E. E. Dennis. 1998. Understanding mass Wadsworth.
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Houghton Mifflin.
© Kappa Delta Pi
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