ERIC EJ724874: WICS: A Model of Educational Leadership

2004·0.04 MB·English

by  ERIC

WICS: A Model of
Educational Leadership
by Robert J. Sternberg
What are the ingredients of successful the theory of successful intelligence—creative
educational leadership? One possible answer intelligence—is discussed in the section on
is the WICS model. According to this para- creativity. These abilities are important for
digm, to be a highly effective leader, an indi- leaders because they need to be able to re-
vidual must possess three key attributes: trieve information relevant to their decisions
Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity—work- (memory abilities) and analyze and evaluate
ing in harmony or Synthesized. (Sternberg different courses of action, whether proposed
2003; Sternberg and Vroom 2002). The skills by themselves or others (analytical abilities).
necessary for successful leadership are not
innate, but may be developed. Wisdom, in- Academic Intelligence
telligence, and creativity, with intelligence at Academic intelligence refers to the coa-
the base, to some extent, are forms of devel- lescence of memory and analytical abilities
oping expertise (Sternberg 1998; 1999a). to constitute the conventional notion of in-
telligence—the abilities needed to recall and
INTELLIGENCE recognize, and analyze, evaluate, and judge
Intelligence, as conceived of here, is not information. These abilities are typically mea-
just intelligence in its conventional narrow sured by quintessential standardized tests.
sense—some kind of scientific factor (Jensen Research on the relationship between these
1998; Spearman 1927) or as IQ (Wechsler abilities and leadership, which goes back as
1939). If the conventional intelligence of a far as Stogdill (1948), produces ambiguous
leader is significantly higher than that of the results. Though a modest correlation seems
people he or she leads, the leader may not to exist between these abilities and leadership
connect with those people and, therefore, effectiveness (Stogdill 1948), the correlation
become ineffective (Williams and Sternberg is affected by the leader’s stress and other
1988). Accordingly, intelligence should be factors (Fiedler 2002; Fiedler and Link 1994).
evaluated in terms of the theory of success- Intelligence seems to have a positive correla-
ful intelligence (Sternberg 1999c; 2002c). Suc- tion with leadership effectiveness during low
cessful intelligence is the ability to succeed stress conditions, but a negative correlation
in life, given one’s own conception of suc- when stress is high.
cess, within one’s sociocultural environment.
Two aspects of this theory are particularly Practical Intelligence
relevant: academic intelligence and practical Past literature has focused on academic
intelligence (Neisser 1979). A third aspect of intelligence (IQ) in relation to leadership.
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Some recent theorists have emphasized of knowledge at his or her disposal, but be
other aspects of intelligence, such as emo- unable to use this wisdom effectively. A
tional intelligence (Caruso, Mayer, and leader particularly strong in analytical skills
Salovey 2002; Goleman 1998) or multiple as well as memory skills may be able to re-
intelligences (Gardner 1995). Here, the trieve information and analyze it effectively,
emphasis is on practical intelligence, which but may lack practical skills needed to con-
has a somewhat different focus than emo- vince others that his or her analysis is cor-
tional intelligence. Practical intelligence is rect. A leader strong in memory, analytical,
part of successful intelligence and a core and practical skills is most likely to be effec-
component of leadership. tive in influencing others. A leader strong in
Practical intelligence is the ability to solve practical skills, but not memory and analyti-
everyday problems by utilizing knowledge cal skills—in conventional terms, “shrewd,”
gained from experience to purposefully but not “smart”—may be effective in getting
change oneself to suit the environment (ad- others to go along, but may end up leading
aptation), change the environment to suit them astray.
oneself (shaping), or find a new environment
in which to work (selection). A leader uses Tacit Knowledge
these skills to manage oneself, manage oth- Much of the knowledge associated with
ers, and manage tasks. successful problem solving can be character-
Effectiveness in “transactional leader- ized as tacit—not openly expressed or stated.
ship” (Avolio, Bass, and Jung 1999; Bass 1998; Individuals typically acquire this type of
Bass 2002) is derived, in large part, from the knowledge through their own experiences,
adaptive function of practical intelligence. though it can be acquired through formal
Transactional leaders are generally adapters, training. Individuals draw on this broad base
working with their followers toward the of knowledge in solving practical problems.
mutual fulfillment of essential contractual Research on expert knowledge is consistent
obligations. These leaders typically specify with this concept; experts draw on a well-
role and task requirements and provide re- developed repertoire of knowledge in re-
wards based on desired performance. They sponding to problems in their respective do-
also may manage by exception, monitoring mains (Scribner 1986). That knowledge tends
standards and intervening when standards to be procedural in nature and to operate
are not met. outside of focal awareness (Chi, Glaser, and
Different combinations of intellectual Farr 1988), as well as to reflect the structure
skills engender different types of leadership. of the situation more closely than it does the
Leaders vary in their memory skills, analyti- structure of formal, disciplinary knowledge
cal skills, and practical skills. A leader par- (Groen and Patel 1988).
ticularly strong in memory skills, but not The term “tacit knowledge” has roots in
other types of skills, may have vast amounts works on the philosophy of science (Polanyi
1966), ecological psychology (Neisser 1976),
Robert J. Sternberg is IBM Professor of
and organizational behavior (Schön 1983),
Psychology and Education in the Depart-
and has been used to characterize knowledge
ment of Psychology at Yale University and
that has an implicit, unarticulated quality and
Director of the Yale PACE Center. He also
is the 2003 President of the American that has been acquired from everyday expe-
Psychological Association (APA), as well riences. This knowledge is necessary to suc-
as Editor of The APA Review of Books: ceed in a job, but is not explicitly taught. The
Contemporary Psychology. role of tacit knowledge in everyday problem
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solving is often reflected in the common lan- people by their ability to influence rather
guage of the workplace as people attribute than their agenda.
successful performance to “learning by do- A confluence model of creativity
ing,” “professional intuition,” or “instinct.” (Sternberg and Lubart 1996) suggests that
Tacit knowledge is an aspect of practical creative leaders show a variety of character-
intelligence that enables individuals to adapt istics. These characteristics represent not in-
to, select, and shape real-world environments nate abilities, but, largely, a decision to be cre-
(Sternberg and Horvath 1999; Sternberg, ative (Sternberg 2000). These leaders exhibit
Forsythe, Hedlund, Horvath, Snook, Wil- a creative attitude toward life, and among
liams, Wagner, and Grigorenko 2000; Wagner their attributes, they often:
and Sternberg 1985). It is knowledge learned •are willing to defy the crowd;
from experience and applied in the pursuit •are courageous and stand up for their
of personally valued goals. Research by convictions;
Sternberg and his colleagues (Sternberg, •redefine problems;
Wagner, and Okagaki 1993; Sternberg, •recognize how knowledge can both
Wagner, Williams, and Horvath 1995) help and hinder creative thinking (Frensch
showed that tacit knowledge has relevance and Sternberg 1989; Sternberg 1985);
in understanding successful performance in •take sensible risks;
a variety of domains and tends to: •surmount obstacles;
•increase with experience—though •believe in their ability to accomplish
what matters is not necessarily the amount the task at hand (self-efficacy) (Bandura 1997);
of experience but rather how well one takes •tolerate ambiguity;
advantage of it; •find extrinsic rewards for things they
•correlate only modestly, if at all, with are intrinsically motivated to do; and
traditional measures of intelligence and per- •continue to grow intellectually rather
sonality; than stagnate.
•predict job performance as well as or The creative leadership one exercises can
better than conventional tests of intelligence; be of different kinds (Sternberg 1999b,
and Sternberg 2002a; Sternberg, Kaufman, and
•predict job performance incrementally Pretz 2002), as described in the following
over conventional tests—that is, provide sig- paragraphs.
nificant prediction beyond what can be ob- Replications. Leaders who are replicators
tained from such tests. basically work from someone else’s script.
They recycle existing ideas, largely in their
CREATIVITY original form, and adapt them to new situa-
Creativity refers to skill in generating tions. They imitate someone or otherwise do
ideas and products that are relatively novel, what has been done in the past. A university
high in quality, and appropriate to the task administrator, for example, might simply
at hand. Because creativity generates ideas decide to continue the policies of his or her
that others will follow, it is an important predecessor with as little modification as
component for leadership. A leader who is possible.
practically intelligent may get people to go Redefinitions. This type of leader uses ex-
along with ideas, but those ideas may be isting ideas in a new form or way. Redefiners
inferior or stale. Many leaders who are in- typically accept the status quo, but may give
telligent academically and even practi- it a new name or description. They also may
cally—but are uncreative—essentially lead view existing ideas differently than others.
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Redefiners are sometimes described as going, but beginning at a point that most
people who present old wine in new bottles, people had long ago abandoned. Regressive
because their ideas are repackaging of already redirectors argue that a past system of man-
existing concepts. A university administra- agement or government was superior to the
tor, for example, might give a new name to present one, and lead on the basis of that
an existing program, or continue the program earlier system. A college administrator
for reasons different from might decide, for ex-
those for which the program ample, that the more tra-
was initiated. ditional curriculum for-
Forward incrementations. merly offered by his or
This type of leadership in- her college is superior to
volves moving things the Practical intelligence is the modern offerings,
next step in the direction in and revert to former
which things have been part of successful educational programs.
moving. Leaders who use Reinitiation. A leader
intelligence and a core
forward incrementations who reinitiates starts
adhere to old patterns, but component of leadership. from a point beyond
do not necessarily replicate where things are pres-
them. A university admin- ently, and moves for-
istrator, for example, might ward in a different direc-
lead people toward the tion. Reinitiators do not
next step in the reform accept the current direc-
policies set by a predecessor. tion, nor the current starting point or basic
Advance forward incrementations. This in- assumptions. Such leaders accept practi-
volves moving things forward in the current cally nothing from the past and tend to
direction, but also advancing several steps shake things up as they move in a direc-
forward—often beyond where others are tion they alone have set. A university ad-
ready to follow. Leaders who use advance ministrator might decide, for example, to
forward incrementations try moving so far, try to privatize a public institution.
very fast, so quickly that they sometimes lose Syntheses. Synthesizers put together ideas
their followers in the process. For example, a from different paradigms or ways of think-
university administrator might decide to in- ing that previously have not been integrated.
crease drastically research productivity ex- These leaders see value in integrating mul-
pectations from faculty members who are tiple existing procedures or techniques of
inadequately trained or constrained by time. other leaders to generate new approaches. A
Redirections. Redirectors are unhappy university administrator might decide for
with where things are going, so they attempt instance, to combine aspects of traditional
to steer followers in another direction. A uni- and modern curricula rather than emphasize
versity administrator, for example, might one or the other.
decide at any given point to eliminate a com- While some leaders transform an orga-
petitive intramural athletics program, or to nization through their creative contributions,
begin weighing teaching experience more others do not. Though transformation is not
seriously in tenure consideration where only necessary in every leadership situation, lead-
research mattered previously. ers who are long remembered, in most cases,
Regressive redirection. This involves are those who transformed organizations or
changing the direction in which things are ways of thinking.
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A transformational leader always will be he or she uses successful intelligence and
creative to some degree, but may or may not experience, moderated by values, to (a)
be particularly wise. Transformational lead- seek to reach a common good; (b) balance
ers who are low or lacking in wisdom are not intrapersonal (one’s own), interpersonal
in any sense “pseudo-transformational” as (others’), and extrapersonal (organiza-
opposed to “authentically transformational.” tional/institutional/spiritual) interests
They genuinely may effect transformations, over the short and long term; and (c) adapt
but not wise ones. For example, some Afri- to, shape, and select environments.
can leaders in the latter half Wise leaders do not
of the 20th century adopted look out just for their
Marxist-Leninist ideas that, own interests, nor do
poorly implemented, drove they ignore those inter-
economically marginal Wise leaders do not look ests. Rather, they skill-
countries into profound im- fully balance interests of
poverishment. These leaders out just for their own varying kinds, including
authentically transformed their own, those of their
interests, nor do they
their countries, but for the followers, and those of
worse, as have many unwise ignore those interests. the organization for
corporate leaders in the which they are respon-
United States. Wise transfor- sible. They also recog-
mational leaders are rare. nize the need to align the
Nelson Mandela, one such interests of their group
uncommon leader, imple- or organization with
mented a largely successful policy of forgive- those of other groups or organizations be-
ness and reconciliation that is practically cause no group operates within a vacuum.
unique among modern heads of state. Further, wise leaders realize that what may
Research on creativity (Lubart and appear to be a prudent course of action over
Sternberg 1995) has yielded several conclu- the short term does not necessarily appear
sions. First, creativity often involves defy- so over the long term.
ing the crowd. Creative leaders are good Less successful leaders often have ig-
investors, buying low and selling high in nored another set of interests. For example,
the world of ideas. Second, creativity is rela- Richard Nixon and Bill Clinton, in their re-
tively domain specific. Third, creativity is spective cover-ups, not only failed to fulfill
weakly related to academic intelligence, but the interests of their country, but also failed
is not the same thing. In general, there ap- to fulfill their own interests. Their cover-ups
pears to be a threshold of IQ for creativity, bogged down their administrations in scan-
but it is probably about 120 or even lower dals and stood in the way of positive accom-
(Sternberg and O’Hara 2000). plishments. Freud was a leader in the fields
of psychiatry and psychology, but lost the
WISDOM support of his disciples by insisting they con-
A leader can have intelligence and cre- form to his own system of psychoanalysis.
ativity and still lack arguably the most im- Motivated more by hubris than by France’s
portant, but perhaps the rarest, leadership need to have Russia in its empire, Napoleon’s
quality—wisdom. According to a proposed invasion of Russia partially destroyed his
balance theory of wisdom (Sternberg 1998; reputation as a successful military leader and
2000), an individual is wise to the extent paved the way for his later downfall.
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Indeed, relatively few leaders at any other people, and wisdom to make the ideas
level are particularly wise. Yet, the few lead- work for everyone’s benefit. If even one of
ers who are notably so—Nelson Mandela, these ingredients is lacking, the leader dimin-
Martin Luther King, Jr., Mahatma Gandhi, ishes his or her favorable position to lead ef-
and Winston Churchill—left an indelible fectively. Leaders who do not have high lev-
mark on the people they led and on his- els of all these skills need to capitalize on their
tory. It is important to note that wise lead- strengths and find ways to compensate for
ers usually are charismatic, but charismatic their weaknesses, usually through the assis-
leaders are not necessarily tance of able advisors.
wise as demonstrated by
Hitler, Stalin, and certain A leader can have FINAL THOUGHTS
other charismatic leaders. No model of leader-
intelligence and
Unsuccessful leaders ship fully captures all
often display stereotypical creativity and still have the many facets—both
fallacies in their thinking; internal and external to
arguably the most
five such flaws (Sternberg the individual—that
2002b) should be consid- make for a successful
important but perhaps
ered. The first, unrealistic- leader. The WICS model
optimism fallacy, occurs the rarest leadership may come close, how-
when leaders think they are ever, in capturing im-
quality—wisdom.
so smart and effective that portant dimensions.
they can do whatever they The WICS model,
please. The second, “ego- which is related to
centrism fallacy,” describes successful lead- many other models, incorporates elements
ers who think that only they matter, not the of transformational as well as transactional
people who rely on them. The third, “om- leadership (Bass 1998; Bass and Avolio
niscience fallacy,” occurs when leaders 1994), emotionally intelligent leadership
think they know everything, and lose sight (Goleman 1998), visionary leadership
of their own limitations. The fourth, “om- (Sashkin 1988), and charismatic leadership
nipotence fallacy,” portrays leaders who (Conger and Kanungo 1998; Weber 1968).
think they are all-powerful and can do Eventually a model of leadership will
whatever they want. And the fifth, “invul- emerge that integrates all the strengths of
nerability fallacy,” happens when leaders these various models. In the meantime, the
think they can get away with anything, con- WICS model seems like a starting place.
sider themselves too clever to be caught,
and even if caught, figure they can get away The preparation of this article was sup-
with it because of who they imagine them- ported by Contract MDA 903-92-K-0125
selves to be. from the U.S. Army Research Institute. Cor-
respondence about the article should be
SYNTHESIS sent to Robert J. Sternberg, PACE Center,
The elements of the WICS model work Yale University, Box 208358, New Haven,
together. A successful leader, according to Conn. 06520-8358. All work done at the
the model, needs creativity to generate PACE Center represents the cumulative
good ideas, academic intelligence to ascer- input of many people over a period of
tain whether those ideas are good, practi- many years. I am grateful to all my col-
cal intelligence to know how to persuade leagues for their collaborations.
The Educational Forum • Volume 68 • Winter 2004
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