ERIC EJ642563: Alternative Routes to Certification of Technology Education Teachers.

10 Pages·2001·0.07 MB·English

by  ERIC

Alternative Routes to Certification of Technology 35
Education Teachers
Marie Hoepfl
Virtually every state in the nation has The nationwide shortage of teachers is
provisions that allow school districts to hire being felt in technology education as it is in
nonlicensed individuals to teach if district most other teaching fields (Weston, 1997).
authorities can demonstrate that no regularly States appear to be responding to this shortage
licensed teachers are available. States are through a variety of measures, including
responding to this shortage through a variety alternative routes to licensure. Due to the
of measures, including alternative routes to continuing and apparently rapid decline in
licensure. Begun as short-term measures to deal graduates from traditional technology teacher
with immediate shortages, alternative paths are preparation programs (Volk, 1997, 2000), this
now becoming “institutionalized alternatives study was conducted to examine the extent to
to college-based teacher education” programs which alternative routes to licensure in
(Stoddart & Floden, 1995, p. 1). Alternative technology education is being used on a
routes are designed to reduce entrance national level.
requirements and preparation needed prior to
paid employment as a teacher, and they empha- Alternative Certification: Background
size on-the-job training (Zumwalt, 1996). and Issues
Defined simply, alternative certification According to Stoddart and Floden (1995),
(AC) is a process in which a state licenses a the first step toward widespread development
person who has not completed a university- of alternative routes to certification was the
based teacher preparation program (Wise, adoption of standardized tests for teachers as a
1994). The term has been applied to a wide means of ensuring their academic competence.
range of alternative models. The National This shifted the emphasis away from
Council for Education Information (NCEI) pedagogical skills toward content knowledge.
distinguishes “true” AC programs as those that Growth in the use of alternative routes
“include formal instruction and mentoring occurred at a time when the military services
while teaching, and are not driven by discipline were downsizing, businesses were displacing
shortages” (Ludwig, Stapleton, & Goodrich, workers, and universities were attempting to
1995, p. 6). In spite of this, the AC programs market their teacher education programs
in most states do not represent “true” models, (Ludwig et al., 1995). At the same time,
since many have been implemented to address politicians and the public were criticizing the
shortages, do not require formal mentoring, quality of education and the inability of
and may not require any formal instruction. universities to produce teachers to meet
Alternative licensure routes typically focus expected demands for teachers. The
on the more pragmatic issues of teaching– the Department of Defense has acted as an
survival skills –more than they emphasize the important promoter of moving retired or
theoretical foundations of education. The nonactive military personnel into the
pedagogical skills addressed are designed to classroom. Programs such as Troops to Teachers
help the teacher assume full-time responsibility and Servicemembers Opportunity Colleges
for teaching with a measure of success Education (SOCED) offer incentives and
(McKibbin & Ray, 1994). financial support to retired military personnel
Emergency teaching certificates have been who enter teaching (Keltner, 1994).
used in K-12 education for a long time. These The underlying assumption behind most
are typically temporary certificates awarded on an alternative routes to certification is that
annual basis to fill a pressing need. In fact, the traditional teacher preparation (i.e.,
number of individuals teaching “out of field” pedagogical knowledge) is unnecessary for
or on an emergency basis is relatively high in some success in the classroom (Knight, Owens, &
states and some districts. Certification through Waxman, 1990-1991). The following
other than traditional routes has also been used statement, issued as part of an “education
in vocational education for the better part of this manifesto” by a group of educators and policy
century (Walker, Gregson, & Frantz, 1996). makers, is representative of the rhetoric that
36 often accompanies calls for alternatives: not older individuals seeking midcareer
Today, Albert Einstein would not be able changes. An additional 24% of the teachers
s to teach physics in America’s public school in Shen’s study were seeking certification in a
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di classrooms. That is ridiculous. Alternative different field. An important implication of
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S certification in all its variety should be these findings is that AC routes allow new
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o welcomed, and for schools that are truly held college graduates to circumvent the traditional
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n accountable for results, certification should be teacher preparation process.
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e abolished altogether. Colleges of education Proponents of AC claim that it is an
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of must lose their monopoly and compete in the effective way to meet the growing teacher
al marketplace; if what they offer is valuable, they shortages in many fields. While this may be
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u will thrive. (Thomas B. Fordham Foundation, true for some teaching fields and in some
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e 1998, p. 5) geographical areas, it is clearly not always the
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T Characteristics of the particular AC pro- case (Ludwig et al., 1995). However, data from
gram and of the teaching context have been Shen’s (1997) national study suggest that
found to be critically important in evaluating shortages in specific subject areas – namely,
program success (Zumwalt, 1996). In their math, science, and technology – are being
examination of AC of trade and industry addressed (if not met) through alternative
teachers, for example, Walker et al. (1996) programs. In other words, a greater percentage
found that requirements for certification across of alternatively certified teachers held degrees
different states were so dissimilar that in math, science, or engineering than the
reciprocity agreements did not seem to apply. traditionally certified teachers (Shen, 1997).
According to the National Education Another claim made for AC programs is
Association (NEA), the primary reasons for that they will help to meet the need for teachers
using alternative routes are to boost the pool in urban schools. According to Shen (1998),
of minority teachers and to provide these programs have addressed the need in
opportunities for midcareer professionals from urban schools, where minority students are
other fields to more readily apply their talents concentrated. AC programs do not, however,
to teaching (Ludwig et al., 1995). By appear to have addressed the need for teachers
streamlining certification requirements, in rural areas (Shen, 1998).
talented people may be attracted from industry The great irony of many AC programs is
or government who would otherwise not be that at the same time that policy makers have
able or willing to serve (Litowitz, 1998). made it easier for noncredentialed individuals
Opponents of streamlined approaches to enter the classroom, they are decrying the
claim that this results in teachers who are less perceived lack of quality among graduates of
prepared to fulfill their professional traditional programs and implementing more
responsibilities. Instead, they believe, teaching stringent guidelines for the preparation of these
should be modeled after other professional teachers. The added hurdles make it even more
fields such as engineering or medicine, and difficult to attract people into the teaching
licensure should be treated rigorously. Stoddart profession via traditional routes. Stoddart and
and Floden (1995) likened shortened Floden (1995) called this the “two worlds of
alternative models to the trades, such as teacher education” (p. 2).
carpentry, plumbing, and the like, “where on- The argument for using alternative routes
the-job training in the form of apprenticeships to find people with content-area expertise is
is the norm” (p. 3). Presumably, this is meant challenged by two findings. Ludwig et al. (1995)
to suggest a less rigorous form of training. found that participants in several AC programs
A large-scale study conducted by Shen studied felt they needed more content area
(1997) supports the claim that alternative training. And the widely held perception that
routes lead to greater diversity in terms of knowing a subject does not guarantee you can
gender and race (Zumwalt, 1996). The teach it effectively has been supported by
alternatively certified group did have a research (Ludwig et al., 1995). Young-Hawkins
significantly higher percentage of minority (1996) noted “subject-matter competence alone
teachers and a higher percentage of males than is inadequate for instruction because teaching
the traditionally certified group. The surprising requires the transformation of knowledge
finding was that over 50% of the alternatively content into representations that enhance
certified teachers were recent college graduates, students’ understanding and learning” (p. 27).
Finally, there is a notable absence of follow-up telephone calls, and email reminders 37
discussion about the pedagogical skills of netted a total of 36 returns, for a response rate
alternatively certified teachers; proponents of 70%. At least four states, it was found, have T
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instead focus on claims about their greater either no person designated at the state level J e
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content expertise. One study compared the to work with technology education programs u
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classroom learning environments of or the position was unfilled. These states were a
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alternatively and traditionally prepared counted as nonrespondents. T f
elementary and middle school teachers. The survey was designed to elicit ce
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Significant differences were found in five information about the number of unfilled n
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aspects of the classroom environment: friction, technology teaching positions in each state, the gol
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cohesiveness, use of higher-thought processes, alternative models being used to certify S
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cooperation, and pacing. That is, students in technology teachers, and the perceived d
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traditionally certified teachers’ classrooms effectiveness of these alternative models in s
perceived greater use of higher-thought preparing teachers and in meeting the teacher
processes, a more appropriate pace for coverage deficits. Each of the specific findings are
of material, more group cooperation and discussed and, in some cases, contrasted with
cohesiveness, and less friction than did students the findings from other studies.
in the alternatively certified teachers’ Number of Teachers
classrooms. These dimensions of the learning The state with the largest overall number
environment have been identified as predictors of technology teachers was New York, which
of levels of student achievement (Knight et al., reported 3,000 technology teachers. The state
1990-1991). This would certainly be an avenue with the smallest number of technology
for further research. teachers, excepting the District of Columbia
(50 teachers), was Hawaii, reporting 40
Alternative Certification in Technology technology teachers. The average number for
Education the 36 states responding was 917 teachers, with
The decline in graduates from traditional about one half reporting over 500 teachers and
technology teacher education programs is well one half reporting fewer than 500.
documented (Volk, 1997, 2000). Less well For some states, reporting on the
documented is the number of technology number of technology teachers was
teachers being certified through alternative complicated by the fact that there is not always
routes (Volk, 2000). In an attempt to gain a a clear distinction between technology
better sense of the extent to which alternative education, trade and industry, industrial arts,
licensure is being used on a national scale, a computer technology, and related areas of
survey was sent to all state supervisors for study. An attempt was made, through follow-
technology education. Specifically, this study up telephone communications, to limit these
sought to address the following questions: findings to those teachers designated
1. What is the extent of technology teacher technology education or industrial technology
shortages being experienced? education. For example, data on licensure
2. How are states responding to technology models that appear to apply only to trade and
teacher shortages, if shortages exist? industry teachers are not reported here.
3. What types of alternative licensure Unfilled Positions
models for technology education are All but five states in this study reported
currently in place? having unfilled positions at the time the survey
4. What effect(s) is the existence of was conducted, with a maximum of 150
alternative licensure models in (Florida) and an average of 37 unfilled
technology education having on teacher positions. A total of five states noted more than
shortages and on existing traditional 100 vacancies. These figures may be
technology teacher education programs? misleading, however. As one state supervisor
How the Information Was Gathered and observed, “if you have four math teachers and
What It Yielded lose one, the fraction becomes 3/4 and the
A survey was sent to the designated administration moves quickly to fill the
technology education supervisors in each of the position. If you have four technology teachers
50 states and the District of Columbia during and one leaves, the administration simply
the fall of 1999. A second-round mailing, adjusts the fraction from 4/4 to 3/3 to fit.”
38
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ol 6
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of 2
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Jo 0 programs 1 programs 2 programs 3 programs 4 or more
e programs
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Figure 1. Number of traditional (university-based) programs (n = 33).
As a follow up, respondents were asked if states had 4 or more certification programs.
they knew of any program closings as a result The maximum reported was 10 university
of districts not being able to fill a position. programs (Texas).
Seventy-four percent said yes, with an average When asked if the existing university
number of nine closed programs per state. The programs were able to meet the demand for
maximum reported was 30 programs closed; teachers in the state, all but two supervisors
however, one state indicated that 15 to 20 (94%) said no. The presence of multiple
programs were being closed per year due to programs does not guarantee an adequate
teacher shortages. supply of teachers. Only one state with more
These findings can be compared to than four programs reported an adequate
Litowitz’s (1998) data showing that, nationwide, supply of teachers and no unfilled positions.
about 30% of states had an adequate supply of States reporting the greatest shortages had
technology teachers. Litowitz found that 85% multiple traditional programs (see Table 1).
of state supervisors were aware of unfilled Alternative Certification Programs
programs within their states, with a per state Eighty percent of the states responding had
average of 19 unfilled positions. AC programs in place for technology
Traditional Certification Programs education. Of the eight states that did not, six
Figure 1 shows the number of university were considering adopting alternative models.
technology education programs in the Thus, over 95% of the responding states either
responding states. One state had no university had, or were considering, alternative routes to
program, 10 had only 1 program, 9 states had licensure in technology education. This finding
2 programs, 7 states had 3 programs, and 6 can be contrasted with data from the Litowitz
Table 1. Relationship Between Teacher Shortage and the Number of
Traditional Technology Preparation Programs Within State.
State Unfilled Number of
Positions University
Programs
Texas 100 10
New York 100 2
Pennsylvania 110 2
Missouri 125 3
Florida 150 3
Michigan 0 5
(1998) study, which indicated that 72% of states fewer than 50 alternatively certified teachers. 39
were considering or were using alternative Program Requirements
licensing criteria to meet the demand for teachers. Respondents were given a list of models T
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The earliest date of adoption of alternative from which to select to describe their J e
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models for technology education appears to be alternative licensure requirements. The greatest u
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1980 (Texas). At least six states adopted number of respondents (13) indicated that they a
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alternative models during the 1980s, and 15 allow teachers certified in other fields to teach T f
have adopted alternative models since 1990. technology, with the requirement that they ce
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Data from the remaining states are not complete specified training after beginning n
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available. Only 5 out of the 27 reporting states teaching. However, all models were used on a gol
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had changed their requirements for AC since fairly equal basis (see Figure 2). In this chart, S
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the models were first implemented. One state, work refers to coursework or other teacher d
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Nevada, recently adopted more stringent training requirements, either prior to or after s
requirements for technology certification via beginning teaching.
its alternative route. Although this appears to The following additional details will help
be part of a larger shift toward measurement to clarify this information. Only three states
of teacher performance and a strengthening of (Florida, New York, and Texas) made use of all
AC requirements (Ludwig et al., 1995), there the models listed. Of the states that listed “other”
was no indication that other states were as an option, it most often referred to an
considering such a move. emergency certification or special critical-need
Estimates about the number of technology model. One state identified local (county-level)
teachers pursuing certification via alternative certification as an option under “other.” At least
routes at the time of this survey ranged from three respondents were careful to note that the
lows of zero (District of Columbia) and 2 number of hours needed to satisfy certification
(Missouri) to a high of 400 (Florida). The requirements did not represent a shortened
average for the 27 responding states that sequence of courses, but rather consisted of the
recognized alternative models was 65 teachers, same requirements that a traditionally certified
although about one half of the states reported teacher would have to meet.
Types of Alternative Models Used
Other
Retired
Certification; work while teaching
BA/BS in any field; work while teaching
BA/BS in tech field; work while teaching
Certification; prior work
BA/BS in tech field; prior work

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

Number of states
Figure 2. Frequency of use and types of alternative models adopted by states (n = 27).
40
Who Provides Training?
s
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of State Department/University
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Local Offering
Figure 3. Source of training experiences.
Respondents were asked to describe in modular labs common there. By contrast,
more detail the specific requirements for their several state supervisors noted that teachers
various models. Without exception, candidates must satisfy the same requirements, both
were required to hold a bachelor’s degree to technical and pedagogical, that traditionally
qualify for participation in alternative routes. certified teachers do. The greatest number of
Beyond that, models varied significantly from requirements noted consisted of some 60 hours
state to state. Even within states, requirements of coursework, plus a directed teaching
differed depending on the route taken. In some experience. In some cases, candidates had a
states, based on a transcript review by the state great deal of leeway in determining where and
department or a university representative, an how they would satisfy requirements. For
alternatively certified teacher may not have to example, teachers might take technical
pursue any additional training. For example, coursework at a community college or select
in Georgia, individuals certified in middle level coursework based on the convenience of when,
education could teach any subject within the how, and where it was offered.
middle school setting. In other states, if This information can be compared with
students completed some type of technical that contained in the Litowitz (1998) study.
degree and could pass a written test of technical He reported a minimum requirement of 6
content knowledge, they may not have required credit hours and a maximum requirement of
additional training. 64 credit hours, with a state average of 33 credit
Requirements, therefore, were typically hours for nonteaching degree holders and 24
decided on a case-by-case basis in relation to credit hours for individuals with an existing
established standards. In one example, New teaching degree. The findings from the current
Hampshire offered an alternative route that study support Young-Hawkins’ (1996)
involved a portfolio review and interview observation that most alternative models do
process in which candidates documented their not require any formal internship or period of
work, then met with an evaluation team supervised teaching.
consisting of a state department representative Who Provides Training?
and other technology teachers. If successful, Fourteen states reported offering some
no additional training was required. The cost form of state level support for alternatively
to candidates for applying was $100. certified teachers. Eight provided financial
Some states had much more streamlined support, with three states reporting substantial
processes than others. For example, Mississippi financial support for individuals pursuing
required only a four-week training session prior certification. For example, Florida’s loan
to employment as a technology teacher. This forgiveness program provided up to $10,000
option was available to teachers certified in in loan forgiveness to some participants. Six
another teaching field. The supervisor for that states sponsored or offered workshops for
state believed that the four-week session was alternatively certified technology teachers,
adequate preparation for teaching in the although these were frequently available to any
technology teacher who wanted to participate. Are Alternative Programs Meeting the 41
Two states reported state-level support in the Need for Teachers?
form of mentoring programs. For the most Eleven out of 23 respondents (48%) to this T
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part, training programs were provided through question said that alternative routes are meeting J e
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collaborative efforts between the state the need for technology teachers that would u
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department and university-approved programs not otherwise be met by traditional routes. a
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(see Figure 3). Twelve (52%) responded negatively to this T f
What Backgrounds Are Teachers Coming question, saying that typically there is still a ce
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From? need for teachers. Others expressed the belief n
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The most frequently identified that although this approach is not the most gol
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background for alternatively certified desirable, it is better than having no teachers S
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technology teachers was another teaching field. (i.e., unfilled programs). d
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Some states appeared to specifically target this When asked whether the presence of s
population. The next most frequently alternative routes is affecting existing
identified background was nonteaching traditional programs, 16 respondents (70%)
technical bachelor’s degree programs. Business indicated that they did not believe it is. Five
and industry ranked third as a source for (22%) believed that it is affecting university
teachers, with the military ranking last. programs, but at least two noted that it is
How Well Prepared Are Alternatively affecting them in positive ways. That is,
Certified Teachers? traditional programs have been upgraded or,
Fifteen (71%) of the 21 people responding in one case, begun as a result of this influence.
to this question felt that teachers are being One respondent was uncertain whether there
adequately prepared through AC programs. In is any impact on traditional programs.
this regard the wide variety of requirements Turnover Rates
across states should be kept in mind. Four None of the respondents to this study
respondents (19%) felt that the alternatively could provide data on turnover rates for
certified teachers are not adequately prepared, alternatively certified teachers, although two
while two (9%) were “uncertain” with regard indicated that they had begun to track this
to this question. information. According to Shen (1997), there
In the study conducted by Ludwig et al. is a higher attrition rate among alternatively
(1995) for the National Science Foundation, certified teachers than among traditionally
up to 40% of participants reported feeling certified teachers. This data is not specific to
underprepared for tasks such as classroom technology education, however, and may not
management, working with at-risk students, be representative of the field.
“survival skills,” and administrative duties.
Surprisingly, 11% felt inadequately prepared Promising Models
to cover course content, and subject area This study collected details regarding the
coursework was perceived to be as valuable as requirements for alternative routes to
education coursework, even though certification in technology education, but no
participants were selected on the strength of assessment was made regarding the advantages
their subject area knowledge. An interesting of one model over another, other than to
follow-up study could involve asking consider suggestions from respondents
alternatively certified technology teachers regarding how they would like to see their
whether they perceive the required training to models strengthened. The Council on
be adequate. Technology Teacher Education (CTTE) has
When asked how they might improve the issued a monograph that outlines the
training required, seven (33%) supervisors recommended components of an alternative
indicated that they would like to include formal licensure model for technology education
mentoring components. Four (19%) indicated (Litowitz & Sanders, 1999).
that they would require more education Ludwig et al. (1995) found agreement
courses, with an equal number stating that they among the various program partners in their
would require additional technology courses. study of university-based alternative models
Two respondents specifically expressed a desire that the school-based portion of these models
for more training regarding the philosophy of should attempt to improve instruction, prevent
technology education. attrition, develop knowledge of school culture,
42 and develop an understanding about student based alternative program may represent a
needs on the part of the alternatively certified distinct opportunity to design a more effective
s teacher. An AC program examined by Miller, program overall. At the very least, increased
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di McKenna, and McKenna (1998) included collaboration between school districts,
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S condensed coursework to meet certification university faculty, and state departments can
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o standards, a new-teacher mentoring program, be seen as beneficial. Ideally, there will be
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n and ongoing coursework to satisfy state chances to combine the “best of practice and
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e requirements for middle level education. The theory” (Ludwig et al., 1995, p. 107).
T
of study compared the characteristics and abilities When designing an AC program, some
al of alternatively certified and traditionally questions that must be asked include:
n
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u certified teachers with results that support this • How much of the program should focus
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e type of model. Alternatively certified and on career transition issues? Individuals
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T traditionally certified teachers were found to entering the classroom are often surprised
be equally confident, to share the same and overwhelmed by the discipline
problems, and to have no observable teaching problems, workload, lack of parental
behavior difference. The critical feature of the support, and lack of student respect for
model program described in the study is its teachers.
extensive mentoring component. • What kind of incentives can be offered to
Numerous sources have supported the cooperating teacher-mentors? It seems
need for mentoring new teachers, whether clear that for substantive mentoring to
certified through alternative or traditional occur, there must be something in the
routes (Associated Press, 1999; Kopp, 1994; relationship to benefit both parties.
Litowitz & Sanders, 1999; McKibbin & Ray, • How much interaction between
1994; Talbert, Camp, & Heath-Camp, 1992). traditionally certified and alternatively
Whenever possible, the program should certified students is desirable? For
include some initial field experiences before a example, TC route students may resent
candidate assumes responsibility for the the streamlined certification requirements
classroom. In addition to the continued of the alternative program. They may also
support provided by the mentor teacher, become disenchanted by the “war stories”
ongoing feedback on performance that targets shared by practicing teachers.
the specific needs of each teacher would, ideally, • To what extent should program
be provided. When all of these elements are in participants be encouraged to act as
place, the candidate is more likely to experience change agents in the schools where they
success, and therefore satisfaction, with the work? Individuals who have made the
teaching role (McKibbin & Ray, 1994). transition from a business or industry
setting are often not in tune with the pace
Implications for Technology Teacher and culture of the school setting (Ludwig
Educators et al., 1995).
In 1999, the president of the University There must be a realization on the part of
of North Carolina General Administration laid those designing AC programs that
down this challenge to universities across the nontraditional teacher candidates have
state: different expectations and needs. For example,
Ludwig et al. (1995) found that the location
The growing teacher shortage [North Carolina of the program (i.e., proximity to home) was a
had an estimated deficit of 8,000 teachers] has
dominant factor in participation. Reputation
presented all of us with a dilemma. The need for
teachers is now, adding impetus to solutions that of a program was another desirable factor for
simply place ‘warm bodies’ in classrooms. participants. Participants tended to be older,
Universities are increasingly seen as part of the
to have families, and to have taken significant
problem rather than part of the solution to
teacher shortages as we seem unable or unwilling pay cuts by making the transition to classroom
to develop more accessible, high-quality, flexible teaching.
preparation programs for working adults. (M. C.
According to Young-Hawkins (1996), few
Broad, personal communication, January 27,
programs are designed to accommodate the
1999)
needs of nontraditional students, who may
An important implication for technology require more flexible scheduling, different
teacher education programs is that a university- modes of delivery, and more focused and
pragmatic content than students in traditional equal success in the classroom? What long-term 43
programs. In her view, “the emergence of impacts will alternatively certified teachers have
alternatives should provide us with new lenses on students in the classroom? Finally, how will T
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for viewing the recruitment and preparation AC programs affect the teaching population? J e
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of technology education teachers” (p. 30). It is shocking and surprising how many u
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One concern for university program initiatives are adopted in education without a
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coordinators is ensuring that involvement with any formal evaluation to determine their T f
AC programs does not detract from the effects. AC is no exception. To get a clear ce
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reputation or quality of their traditional picture of the effectiveness of alternative n
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programs. At Appalachian State University, this approaches, multiyear follow-ups of candidates gol
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author regularly works with classroom teachers should be made (McKibbin & Ray, 1994). S
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pursuing certification through North Compounding the lack of follow-up data on d
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Carolina’s provisional route. These individuals alternatively certified teachers is the lack of s
are nondegree seeking and take relatively few longitudinal data on the effectiveness of
courses, yet consume a significant portion of traditionally certified teachers, information
my time due to their specialized advisement that would be needed for a meaningful
needs. The attempt to accommodate these comparison of the two approaches (Sandlin,
individuals through flexible scheduling means Young, & Karge, 1992). Zumwalt (1996)
that the traditional, full-time students must suggested that neither alternatively nor
compromise by taking courses at less traditionally certified teachers are adequately
convenient times, or on a more compressed prepared to meet the challenges in the nation’s
basis than would otherwise be desirable. These most needy schools.
accommodations are made primarily as a The ultimate challenge facing technology
service to the state and to the profession. educators is to determine how best to satisfy
the continuing demand for technology
Suggestions for Further Research teachers. There are many good reasons for
The data collected in this study should by adopting alternative models, ones that take
no means be considered definitive. Rather, they advantage of the strengths of this approach,
document the status of alternative licensure in rather than focusing on expediency. As Miller
technology education in the United States at a et al. (1998) stated, “alternative certification is
particular point in time. What these data do here to stay; researchers should investigate not
indicate is that the licensure landscape is a whether such programs work, but which ones
moving target, that AC programs for technology work best” (p. 166).
education are being increasingly relied upon to
address teacher shortages, and that considerable Dr. Marie Hoepfl is an Associate Professor and
research is needed to determine the effectiveness Coordinator of the Technology Education
of AC program models. Program, Department of Technology,
Ludwig et al. (1995) posed three questions Appalachian State University. She is a Member-
about AC that are important for all disciplines at-Large of Epsilon Pi Tau.
to address. First, what aspects of AC programs
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