ERIC EJ1162932: The Significance of Specialist Teachers of Learners with Visual Impairments as Agents of Change: Examining Personnel Preparation in the United Kingdom through a Bioecological Systems Theory

2017·0.47 MB·English

by  ERIC

The Significance of Specialist
Teachers of Learners with Visual
Impairments as Agents of Change:
Examining Personnel Preparation
in the United Kingdom through a
Bioecological Systems Theory
Mike McLinden, John Ravenscroft, Graeme Douglas,
Rachel Hewett, and Rory Cobb
Structured abstract: Introduction: The unique challenges to learning and par­
ticipation in education associated with visual impairment are well documented in
the literature, as is the importance of addressing these challenges through
ensuring practitioners who support them are equipped with appropriate knowl­
edge, understanding, and skills. We use a bioecological systems theory as a lens
through which to examine the personnel preparation of vision specialist teachers
to act as agents of change. We draw on the different teacher preparation
programs for specialist teachers of learners with visual impairments in the United
Kingdom to demonstrate how this theory can be applied. Methods: We use a
bounded case study to bring together the respective teacher preparation programs
in the UK in order to demonstrate complementary characteristics of the theo­
retical model proposed. Results and discussion: We argue that a bioecological
systems theory offers a holistic framework for educators involved in personnel
preparation to explicitly engage with vision specialist teachers in their role as
potential agents of change. This preparation includes developing distinctive
knowledge, understanding, and skills to facilitate learner participation in edu­
cation through promoting “progressive” and “mutual” accommodation between
the active learner and the changing learning environments in order to achieve
successful outcomes. Implications for practitioners: The article is original in
applying a bioecological systems theory to the preparation of these specialist
teachers, with a focus on their role as agents of change. We argue that it has
significance, therefore, for practitioners and researchers concerned with the
personnel preparation of other practitioners for learners with distinctive educa­
tional needs across national contexts and settings.
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©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017
T
he unique challenges to learning and ist teachers are able to act as significant
participation in education associated with “agents of change.” By adapting such a
visual impairment are well documented in theoretical approach to personnel prepa­
the literature, as is the importance of ad­ ration, teachers can learn to understand
dressing these challenges through ensur­ their role as political, cultural, intellectual,
ing teachers are equipped with specialist and moral agents, and therefore can use this
knowledge, understanding, and skills understanding to inform their classroom
(McLinden & Douglas, 2014; Hazekamp and itinerant practice as well as their rela­
& Huebner, 1989; Mason & McCall, tionships with learners and the communities
1997; McLinden, Douglas, Hewett, Cobb, in which they work. This approach may not
& Ravenscroft, 2016; Ravenscroft, 2015). have previously been a significant compo­
Educational support is provided by a nent of specialist teacher preparation pro­
range of practitioners and in many na­ grams. We define the distinctive role of the
tional contexts includes input from spe­ vision specialist teacher in acting as an
cialist teachers of learners with visual agent of change as including:
impairments (McLinden & McCracken,
2016; Ravenscroft, 2013; Silberman & • contributing to establishing individual
Sacks, 2007). We define specialist teach­ learner needs and strengths;
ers as those who have a specific qualifi­ • mediating between the developing and
cation that is over and above their initial active visually impaired learner and the
teaching qualification in order to develop changing proximal (close) environments;
and deliver specialized educational pro­ • facilitating interactions between envi­
grams for learners with visual impair­ ronments and connections with distal
ments. Within the United Kingdom, these (distance) influences;
specialist teachers are referred to as qual­ • shaping distal influences such as curric­
ified teachers of visually impaired stu­ ulum policies, budget allocations, and
dents. In the United Kingdom, such a staffing levels;
teacher must first hold an initial teaching • engaging with, and being guided by,
qualification (either primary or second­ national and international policy and
ary) and normally have been teaching in rights drivers and agendas; and
the classroom for two years. In addition, • promoting progressive and mutual
the teacher must obtain a further post­ accommodation between the active
graduate diploma from a government- learner and the changing learning envi­
recognized university. ronments in order to develop and pro­
Given the changing and complex edu­ mote independence.
cational landscape in which specialist
teachers support such learners in different Re-examining how specialist teachers of
contexts, we build on recent work in this learners with visual impairments are pre­
area to illustrate how a bioecological sys­ pared for this role in a given national con­
tems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 2005) can text is particularly relevant at a time when
be drawn upon to inform personnel prep­ their professional roles are undergoing con­
aration across national contexts and set­ siderable change (McLinden et al., 2016;
tings in order to ensure that these special­ McLinden & McCracken, 2016). As an
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Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved
example, new national legislation and pol­ within and between the respective sys­
icy in England and Scotland such as the tems of a given educational ecology.
SEND (Special Educational Needs) Code
Overview of the bioecological
of Practice in England, (Department for Ed­
systems theory
ucation [DfE], 2015), Education (Scotland)
Act (Scottish Government, 2016), strength­
The bioecological systems theory was de­
ens the responsibilities of mainstream and
veloped by Uri Bronfenbrenner over sev­
special schools for teaching and assessing
eral decades to demonstrate the complex
the progress of all learners with particular
and sophisticated relationships between in­
educational needs who are placed with
fluences on human development that are
them. Our focus in this paper, therefore, is
close to the learner (proximal influences)
to offer a holistic conceptualization of the
and those that are distant (distal influences)
knowledge, understanding, and skills the
over a given developmental time span
specialist teacher requires to act as a proac­
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979; 2005). As Lerner
tive agent of change in order to facilitate a
(2005, p. xviii) notes, Bronfenbrenner’s
learner’s participation and development
model includes several propositions de­
within a complex and evolving “ecology”
scribed as “sets of ideas” to promote a “dy­
of inclusive education (Anderson, Boyle, &
namic, person-context relational view of
Deppeler, 2014).
the process of human development.” The
We start the paper with an overview of
first proposition was described by Bron­
Bronfenbrenner’s bioecological systems
fenbrenner as being the cornerstone of
theory of development (Bronfenbrenner, a broader bioecological systems theory
2005) and discuss how it has been drawn (Bronfenbrenner, 2005), and makes refer­
upon to examine the distinctive role of spe­ ence to “the progressive, mutual accommo­
cialist teachers in supporting learners with dation, throughout the life course, between
sensory impairments (McLinden et al., an active, growing human being and the
2016; McLinden & McCracken, 2016; changing properties of the immediate set­
Swanwick, 2014). We then apply the theory tings in which the developing person lives,
to the United Kingdom as a bounded case since this process is affected by the relations
study in order to examine the personnel between these settings, and by the larger
preparation of vision specialist teachers, contexts in which the settings are embed­
drawing on two national specifications ded” (Bronfenbrenner, 2005, p. 107 [origi­
(England and Scotland) to illustrate relevant nal italics]). The synthesis between the ac­
knowledge, understanding, and skills. Our tive individual and the changing context
original contribution to the literature is to was conceptualized by Bronfenbrenner as a
propose a new conceptual model that draws series of nested systems in order to reflect
on a bioecological systems theory to illus­ their dynamic relationships within a given
trate the distinctive knowledge, understand­ ecology. The context within which individ­
ing, and skills that specialist teachers of ual development takes place in this struc­
learners with visual impairments require ture is commonly represented in the litera­
through personnel preparation in order to ture as a series of concentric circles situated
act as effective agents of change, working around a developing individual, with each
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©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017
circle referring to nested but separate sys­ that influences an individual indirectly
tems to reflect this ecology (Anderson et al., through its potential impact on the micro-
2014; Hewett, Douglas, McLinden, & Keil, and mesosystems.
2017; McLinden et al., 2016). The outer system is referred to as the
The individual at the center of the ecol­ macrosystem and was conceptualized by
ogy can be described in relation to par­ Bronfenbrenner as comprising “the over-
ticular characteristics (for example, age, arching pattern of micro-, meso-, and
gender, cultural background, and the exosystems characteristic of a given
like), and was conceptualized by Bron­ culture, subculture, or other broader so­
fenbrenner (2005, p. 121) as “an active cial context” (Bronfenbrenner, 2005,
agent” who contributes to his or her own pp. 149 –150). The relevance of this sys­
development. Surrounding the individual tem is captured succinctly by Swanwick
is the microsystem that incorporates “the (2014, n.p.) in noting that it “develops the
complex of relations between the devel­ characteristics of the environment further
oping person and the environment in an to include factors which are more remote
immediate setting containing the person” from the individual but which provide the
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979, p. 515). For chil­ infrastructure for the microsystem such as
dren and young people, this system in­ cultural constructs of education, culture or
cludes their active interactions with peo­ community.” The chronosystem acknowl­
ple close to them in their environment, edges the progressive nature of develop­
including, depending on their age, people ment over time, such that as children and
in their home, playgroup, school, college, adults get older or more experienced they
and wider community settings. may interact differently with the systems
The mesosystem surrounds the microsys­ around them.
tem and consists of “the interrelations Although the theoretical framework
amongst major settings containing the de­ outlined by Bronfenbrenner was not ini­
veloping person at a particular point in his tally intended to be directly applied to
or her life” (Bronfenbrenner 1979, p. 515). children with disabilities, there is evi­
As noted by McLinden and McCracken dence in the literature to demonstrate
(2016), it is concerned with developing and the value of drawing on it to examine
promoting connections between structures educational practice for learners with par­
within the child’s microsystem as well as ticular developmental needs (see, for ex­
making connections with other agencies in ample, Bricout et al., 2004; Davis, Raven­
the outer systems. The exosystem is situated scroft, & Bizas, 2014). More recently, the
around the mesosystem and is described as framework has been applied to the sup­
encompassing “the linkage and processes port of learners with sensory impairments
taking place between two or more settings, (see, for example, Hewett et al., 2017;
at least one of which does not ordinarily McLinden et al., 2016; Swanwick, 2014).
contain the developing person, but in which As an example, it has been drawn upon to
events occur that influence processes within examine the distinctive role of specialist
the immediate setting that does contain that teachers in facilitating curriculum access
person” (Bronfenbrenner, 2005, p. 148). As within education (McLinden et al., 2016), as
such, it is considered to be a distal system well as to analyze multilayered influences on
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Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved
Table 1
Number of children with vision impairments aged 0 –16 years of age in the United Kingdom and
approximate number of specialist teachers of learners with visual impairments (from Keil, 2012;
Ravenscroft & Wazny, 2017; RNIB, 2017b).
Variable England N. Ireland Scotland Wales Total
Number of children with visual impairments
(0–16) 21,715 815 1,947 1,187 25,663
Approximate number of specialist teachers
of learners with visual impairments 600 10 95 30 735
the participation of learners with visual grams in England and Scotland as a
impairments in higher education (Hewett meaningful choice to demonstrate that,
et al., 2017). The framework has also although there exist differing characteris­
provided a lens through which to provide tics within both programs, they demon­
a holistic overview of the role of visiting strate complementary characteristics of
teachers of learners with sensory impair­ the theoretical model proposed.
ments in a national context, with a partic­
ular focus on the nature of the educational Personnel preparation
supports provided to schools (McLinden of specialist vision teachers
& McCracken, 2016). in the United Kingdom
With respect to the personnel prepa­ POPULATION, POLICY, AND PROVISION
ration of specialist teachers of learners The four countries comprising the United
with other types of sensory impair­ Kingdom are England, Northern Ireland,
ments, Swanwick (2014) has applied a Scotland, and Wales. The educational
bioecological model to the education of contexts have become increasingly diver­
teachers of students who are deaf. The gent since education has been devolved to
model suggests that specialist teachers each country, and although some policies
need to be supported in order to “develop differ, common issues have been identi­
the confidence and competencies to work fied as including (Royal National Institute
effectively across these levels through train­ of Blind People [RNIB], 2017a):
ing and professional development pro­
grammes and, beyond training, through the • integrating planning and commission­
establishment of research practice part­ ing of services to bring together educa­
nerships which foster a critical engage­ tion, health and social care provision;
ment with the learning and teaching pro­ • improving transitions through planning
cess” (Swanwick, 2014, n.p.). In the next for children and young people from
section, we apply a similar analysis of the birth through to adulthood; and
bioecological theory to examine the per­ • promoting greater choice and control
sonnel preparation of specialist teachers for children and young people and their
of learners with visual impairments, with families.
a particular focus on the context of the
United Kingdom. We draw on a bounded Table 1 provides a breakdown of the
case study approach (Hamilton & Raven­ numbers of children and young people
scroft, 2017), bringing together the pro­ with visual impairments known to the
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©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017
schools and specialist services in each State. Teachers working in an advisory
country, and the approximate number of role to support such pupils should also
specialist teachers with a qualification to hold the appropriate qualification” (DfE,
teach these learners. The population data 2015, para 6.61). The Mandatory Quali­
are drawn from a single dataset (RNIB, fication is part of the statutory require­
2017b), and given the variations in how ments for qualified teacher status set out in
such data are collected and reported in the regulations governing qualified teacher
relation to, for example, age and primary status in England (National College for
needs, there can be considerable varia­ Teaching and Leadership [NCTL], 2015, p.
tions in the numbers in comparison with 4). In order to gain the qualification, the
other national datasets. Department for Education requires that
The situation with respect to the per­ “participants are assessed against, and
sonnel preparation of specialist teachers demonstrate that they meet, the required
of learners with visual impairments in the course outcomes” (NCTL, 2015, p. 4).
United Kingdom is complex, with spe­ Qualified teachers who work in advisory
cific requirements applying to each coun­ roles, as well as those supporting children
try. Although a number of national spec­ and young people who have visual im­
ifications have been developed outlining pairments in other educational settings,
the particular knowledge, understanding, are advised to complete this training, al­
and skills that these teachers are expected though it is not a requirement for them
to be able to demonstrate in a given na­ (DfE, 2015). A summary of the headings
tional context, only those in England and used in the current specification for Eng­
Scotland were operational at the time of land (NCTL, 2015) is presented in Figure
writing. As there are currently no special­ 1. Each of the headings is divided into
ist qualifications for teachers in Wales subheadings listing specific outcomes that
and Northern Ireland, therefore, eligible present the particular knowledge and un­
teachers would normally be expected to derstanding and skills that need to be
undertake a professional qualification at a demonstrated.
course provider in either England or Scot­
land. As we discuss below, there are dif­ PERSONNEL PREPARATION OF SPECIALIST
ferences in teacher eligibility as well as in TEACHERS IN SCOTLAND
the course provider specifications that are The Requirements for Teachers (Scot­
drawn upon within each country. land) Regulations (Scottish Government,
2005, p. 1) requires each authority “to
PERSONNEL PREPARATION OF SPECIALIST employ adequate numbers of teachers
TEACHERS IN ENGLAND with appropriate professional skills and
The Mandatory Qualification is a well- knowledge necessary to enable those
established route for specialist teachers teachers to undertake the teaching duties
seeking a professional qualification in allocated to them.” Teachers who teach
England with a requirement that “those wholly or mainly children with visual impair­
teaching classes of children with sensory ments are required to possess an appropriate
impairment must hold an appropriate qualification to teach such pupils (Ravenscroft
qualification approved by the Secretary of and Wazny, 2017). Teachers may be
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Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved
Figure 1. Summary of headings in the Mandatory Qualification specification for teachers of
children and young people with visual impairments in England (adapted from NCTL, 2015).
employed by a local authority without also be obtained through a combination of
having the appropriate additional qualifi­ courses and through other forms of ac­
cations so long as the education authority credited training (as long as that training
is satisfied that the teacher is already in has been quality assured). A summary of
the process of training and will obtain the headings used in the specifications for
these qualifications within five years of Scotland is presented in Figure 2.
the commencement of teaching pupils
with visual impairments. Compared to PERSONNEL PREPARATION OF SPECIALIST
England, there is a greater range of routes VISION TEACHERS THROUGH A
by which a teacher in Scotland can ac­ BIOECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS MODEL
quire the competencies. A major route is Through the lens of a bioecological sys­
through the acquisition of degrees or at­ tems model, a learner with visual impair­
tendance at courses at higher educational ment is considered to be an active agent,
institutions, although qualification can situated at the center of a complex and
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©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017
Figure 2. Summary of specific competencies for teachers of learners with visual impairments
in Scotland (adapted from Scottish Government, 2007).
multilayered ecology that is governed by ing and teaching approaches that promote
a range of proximal and distal influences. access to learning and participation
As we examine below, in order to act as (NCTL, 2015). Preparing specialist teach­
agents of change in a given context per­ ers to contribute to establishing these
sonnel preparation of specialist teachers needs includes ensuring they have appro­
will seek to ensure that the teachers can priate knowledge and understanding of
work confidently and effectively within the anatomy and physiology of the eye
and between the respective systems to and related structures; the range of con­
achieve successful outcomes. ditions that can create visual impair­
With respect to the learner at the center ments; and the potential implications of
of the ecology, the specialist teacher will these conditions for development, learn­
need to know how to contribute to estab­ ing, and participation (Mason & McCall,
lishing individual needs and strengths, 1997; NCTL, 2015). Preparation will also
and help to match these to suitable learn­ include developing skills in undertaking
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Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved
functional visual assessments, as well as skills to faciliate interactions between envi­
in knowing how to promote a learner’s ronments, and to connect with distal influ­
physical, cognitive, and social develop­ ences, which include developing and pro­
ment to ensure effective participation in moting support networks within school and
education (NCTL, 2015). Examples of college, making links between parents and
relevant knowledge, understanding, and relevant services, supporting the child
skills from the different U.K. national and his or her teachers in the respective
specifications within the differing bioeco­ educational environment, establishing con­
logical systems are presented in Table 2. nections with other agencies (for example,
The microsystem contains the environ­ social services or rehabilitation), and draw­
ments in which the learner actively devel­ ing on relevant policy and legislation (Mason
ops through engaging in formal and in­ & McCall, 1997; NCTL, 2015). Practical
formal learning activities, and includes examples include home visits from the spe­
the social aspects of his or her life cialist teacher to support parents and learn­
(McLinden & McCracken, 2016). As an ers, and explaining and introducing the
agent of change in this system, the spe­ roles of other professionals involved in the
cialist teacher has a significant role in support network (see Table 2).
mediating interactions between the learner The exosystem is conceptualized as be­
and the learning environments. Personnel ing outside of the learner’s direct agency
preparation will therefore include a focus and includes distal influences on the child
on ensuring specialist teachers know and such as the curriculum policies of the
understand how to support learners to ac­ educational setting and budget allocations
cess the curriculum while also promoting in a given year to support children and
independent learning through develop­ young people with particular types of
ing additional skills, including braille, needs. As an agent of change in this sys­
technology, and mobility (McLinden et tem, the specialist teacher will help to
al., 2016; NCTL, 2015). Practical ex­ shape distal influences in order to facili­
amples include advising on classroom tate learner engagement and participation in
layout, student seating positioning, and education. Personnel preparation will
physical education participation (see therefore include a focus on ensuring spe­
Table 2). cialist teachers have appropriate knowl­
The mesosystem includes the relation­ edge, understanding, and skills to shape
ships that are developed and nurtured be­ the distal influences in this system, in­
tween a given home, school, community, cluding, for example, how to advocate for
and workplace setting. As an agent of funding, contribute to inclusive curricu­
change in this system, the specialist teacher lum policies, participate in relevant pro­
will seek to develop and promote connec­ fessional development activities (Mason
tions between structures within the child’s & McCall, 1997; NCTL, 2015), and un­
microsystems and make links with distal derstand how to use assessment tools to
influences in the outer systems. Personnel shape these influences. Practical exam­
preparation will therefore include a focus ples include access arangements for
on ensuring specialist teachers have the ap­ public exams and school-wide visual im­
propriate knowledge, understanding, and pairment awareness raising (see Table 2).
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©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017
hvisualimpairments Practicalexample pecialistteacheradvises mainstreamschoolson classroomlayoutand seatingpositionthat encouragesalearner withavisualimpairment toaccesslearning independentlyand reducesrelianceon adults. pecialistteachervisits ayoungblindchildat homeandsupports parentsinmanaging andpromotinglearning, encouragingthemto exercisechoiceand controloflearning strategies. pecialistteacherliaises withschoolstaffand parentsoveraccess arrangementsforpublic exams,drawingonbest practiceguidancewithin thevisionsectorto ensurethatindividual studentsareassessed appropriately. (cont.)
t S S S
wi
s
ofthespecialistteacheroflearner Exampleofamatchingpractical competenceoutcome(Scotland) Anabilitytoidentify,design,adapt, andevaluateappropriate materialsandenvironmental conditionstomeettheneedsof thefullrangeofchildrenand youngpeoplewithVI.(Teaching andLearning) Anabilitytoplan,develop,and evaluatetheirstrategiesfor workingwithparentsandcarers, teachers,andmultidisciplinary teamsinsupportoflearnerswith VI.(TeachingandLearning) Anunderstandingthatmost standardassessmenttoolsare notdesignedorstandardizedto takeaccountofthe developmentalneedsofyoung learnerswithVI...all assessmentsshouldberegarded asguidesrequiringinterpretation takingaccountofthe circumstancesoftheindividual learner.(Assessment)
e
ol
dskillsofrelevancetother Exampleofamatching practicalMQoutcome (England) Createsafelearning environmentsthat encourageindependence andmobility,helpto developsocialinteraction, andsupporttheemotional healthandwell-beingof learnerswithVI.(Teaching andLearning) Liaiseeffectivelyandworkin partnershipwithparents andcarersoflearnerswith VI,providinginformation, advice,andsupportbased ontheprinciplesof informedchoiceandthe needsofthechild. (Partnershipworking) Beproactiveininformingof updatestothe assessmentprocessesfor thedifferentexamboards andhowtoaccessthe information.(Current legislativeandeducational framework)
n
a
knowledge,understanding, cologicalsystems. Focusofspecialistvision teacherpersonnel preparation Knowledge,understanding, andskillstofacilitate interactionsbetweenthe learnerandthelearning environmenttoensure effectiveparticipation. Knowledge,understanding, andskillstodevelopand promotestructures withinthelearner’s microsystemandto makelinkswiththe distalinfluencesinthe outersystems. Knowledge,understanding, andskillstohelpshape distalinfluencesinorder tofacilitatelearner engagementand participation.
e oe
Table2 Examplesofdistinctiv withinthedifferentbi Bioecologicalsystem Microsystem Theenvironments inwhichthe learneractively engagesinboth formaland informallearning, includingall socialaspects. Mesosystem Relationshipsthat aredeveloped andnurtured betweenhome, school,community,andwork. Exosystem Thisisoutsidethe learner’sdirect agencyand includesdistal influencessuch ascurriculum policies,budget allocations,and staffinglevels.
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Journal of Visual Impairment & Blindness, November-December 2017 ©2017 AFB, All Rights Reserved