ERIC EJ1162651: From ELLs to Bilingual Teachers: Spanish-English Speaking Latino Teachers' Experiences of Language Shame & Loss

2017·0.2 MB·English

by  ERIC

Research
From ELLs to Bilingual Teachers
Spanish-English Speaking Latino Teachers’
Experiences of Language Shame & Loss
Lisa Winstead & Congcong Wang

Introduction or rejected, these children feel a sense of 2013; Feagin, 1984). Prior historical mem-
shame not only about their language but ories of territorial conflict (e.g., French-Al-
By traversing boundaries globally,
also rejection of their heritage, which affects gerian War) and acquisition (e.g., U.S.
transnational individuals supply first-world
their sense of well-being (Phinney, Horen- acquisition of prior Mexican territories) is
economies with labor forces in countries
cyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001). Despite the also associated with notions of first-world
such as the United States, France, and
high demand for teachers who have the nation dominance and third-world subor-
Japan (Vertovec, 2001, 2004; Winstead,
cultural and bilingual expertise to teach dinance as reflected in present-day societal
2010). Transnationals are people who are
these children of transnationals, there is a attitudes and language policies (Darder
residents in the post colony yet continue to
shortage of certified bilingual teachers to & Uriarte, 2013; Macedo, 2000; Wang &
maintain socio-economic relations in their
teach English language learners (ELLs) (de Winstead, 2016).
country of origin, are hired for unskilled la-
Cohen, Deterding, & Clewell, 2005; Hones, Language hierarchies as seen in state
bor, and are often identified as immigrants
Aguilar, & Thao, 2009). policies and practices reveal how language
(Darder & Uriarte, 2013; Vertovec, 2001,
In addition to the shortage and demand status is often tied with immigrant country
2004). The recruitment of transnationals
for highly qualified bilingual teachers, origin status around the world. Thus, a ma-
from prior colonies and neighboring coun-
teachers in countries such as the United jor issue with this expectation of dominant
tries contributes to worldwide multilingual-
States and Great Britain do not reflect first-world powers is the insistance of one
ism and diversity in schools and classrooms
minority populations in the schools (Bireda nation and one language at the expense of
(Hay, 2008; Rueda & Stillman, 2012; Wang
& Chait, 2014; Gollnick & Chinn, 2013; the native or heritage language (Crawford,
& Winstead, 2016).
Vonderlack-Navarro, 2014) and often lack 2004; Macedo, 2000; Wang & Winstead,
The children involved in transnational
the necessary cultural and linguistic exper- 2016), especially languages associated with
movements leave their respective coun-
tise to work with transnational children. lower status in society (Beardsmore, 2008;
tries of origin and corresponding ways of
While much relevant research concerns Darder & Uriarte, 2013; Helot, 2002).
cultural, social, and linguistic understand-
preparing mainstream teachers to work For instance, despite plurilingual cit-
ing. As they enter the host state with their
and support ELLs culturally and lin- izens/residents in France and language
parents, they are placed in schools with
guistically (de Jong & Harper, 2005; Hite policies that promote multilingualism,
the expectation that they will acquire the
& Evans, 2006; Honawar, 2009; Leavitt, language hierarchies exist that favor some
dominant language, understand the host
2013; Lucas, 2008), more study is needed languages over others. Foreign languages
country rules and norms, and perform
to validate and consider the dual language such as German, Spanish, and Italian are
well in school. Yet at the same time, their
expertise of bilingual individuals as re- accorded higher status in France than
native or home language support has
sources to address the increasing needs regional languages and non-European
been removed in schools that reflect re-
of multilingual populations of children in immigrant languages such as Arabic
strictive language policies in such states
schools. (Beardsmore, Helot, & Young, 2005) which
as California and Arizona, both with high
Adopting an identity framework, this has reportedly been restricted as a primary
populations of Latinos (Austin, Willett, &
multiple case study explored bilingual and language tool to promote student instruc-
Gebhard, 2010; Flores & Murillo, 2001;
bicultural Latino teachers’ lived experienc- tion (Young & Helot, 2003).
Macedo, 2000; Valdez, 2001).
es of language shame and loss influenced Revealing similar patterns of language
As their native language is restricted
their teaching in classrooms with main- marginalization, historical language policy
stream and multilingual children. in the United States has been in response
Lisa Winstead is an associate professor to the increasing numbers of Latinos and,
in the Department of Elementary Literature Review correspondingly, the growth of English-on-
and Bilingual Education ly movements (Barker, 2001; Padilla, Lind-
Language Status
in the College of Education holm, Chen, Duran, Hakuta, et al., 1991;
and Language Learners
at California State University, Fullerton. Schildkraut, 2001).
Congcong Wang is an instructor Immigrants, as well as their descen- English-only movements that restrict
in the Department of Languages and Literatures dants who become citizens, are often mar- the use of the primary language have been
in the College of Humanities, Arts, and Sciences ginalized and retain social and language enacted since the 1850s, typically associated
at the University of Northern Iowa, status reflective of post-colonial history with anti-immigrant sentiment, and are
Cedar Falls, Iowa. (Bordieu, 1977, 1986; Darder & Uriarte, now revealed in more current policies such
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
16
Research
as Proposition 63 which decreed English mainstream and are not adequately fa- bilinguals who have become teachers have
as the official language of California in miliar with minority and immigrant lived also been taught to adopt these deficit dis-
1986 (Padilla et al., 1991; San Miguel, community experiences (Delpit, 1995; courses (Arellano-Houchin et al., 2001). In
2008). While this proposition provided Foote et al, 2013; Howard, 2005; Nieto, addition, these discourses often influence
for English as the official language in 2000;). In addition, instances exist in bilingual teachers’ pedagogical practices,
government functions, it also prompted which Spanish-speaking bilingual student which due to policies in some states be-
restrictive school-oriented referendums in teachers are often told not to utilize their come inherently monolingual in nature,
highly Latino-populated states. California primary language in classrooms where the restricting the ability of Latinos to socially
passed Proposition 227 in 1998 and Arizo- majority of Emergent Bilinguals speak communicate intergenerationally (Barker,
na passed Proposition 203 in 2000 which Spanish as a second language (Austin, 2001; Arellano-Houchin et al., 2001).
restricted primary language use in schools. 2010; Fitts et al., 2008). While the litera- Cultivating social justice orientations
Devaluation and restriction of languag- ture often promotes integration, individu- in bilingual-bicultural teachers is crucial
es reveal the reproduction of social hierar- als who have collectively experienced bias to their empowerment so that they may
chies associated with native language sta- or prejudice often regain a sense of pride become role models and change agents
tus (Beardsmore, 2008) that are influenced and validation of their bilingual expertise who acknowledge, support, and utilize
by prior colonial status (Wang & Winstead, only through dialogue and collective con- the bilingual-bicultural capital of diverse
2016). For example, Arabic-speaking North versations with like-minded or culturally student populations in ways that will pre-
Africans have lower academic achieve- similar individuals, such as in bilingual vent heritage loss (Flores & Murillo, 2001;
ment than their European Spanish or cohort programs (Fitts et al., 2008; Weis- Weisman & Hansen, 2010). Schooling in-
Portuguese classmates in France (Alanis, man & Hansen, 2010). struction should be geared to the students’
2010; Brinbaum & Cebolla-Boado, 2007; Evidence of minority language negation background, community, and cultural and
Régner & Loose, 2006) and are perceived and shame are exhibited in social settings linguistic experiences (Gutiérrez 2008).
as having less ability to integrate with leading not only to language loss (Montrul,
the mainstream (Berry & Sabatier, 2010; 2005; Varghese, 2006) but also the loss Bilingual-Bicultural Identities
Holland, 2010; Sabatier, 2008). of intergenerational primary language
Bicultural is a term that refers to
Studies in the United States simi- communication between parents, grand-
individuals who are from two or more
larly reveal that Mexican and Latino parents, and children (Flores & Murillo,
cultural backgrounds (Weisman, Flores,
achievement is lower than that of their 2001). Typically intergenerational commu-
& Valenciana, 2007). Bilingual-bicultural
mainstream counterparts (Gandara, 2010) nication occurs when children can speak
individuals often negotiate meaning in
and those students are typically viewed the language of their parents and their
their adjustment to the dominant social
as resistant to learning English (Barker, grandparents.
and cultural environment (Darder, 1991;
2001; Padilla et al., 1991; Tse, 2001). Intergenerational conflict then occurs
Fitts et al., 2008). Bilingual teachers who
According to Bordieu (1977; 1987), cul- when descendants lack the language
have been exposed to monolingual envi-
tural capital is measured by one’s ability to communicate with their parents and
ronments representative of restrictive
to follow expected language and social family members (Flores & Murillo, 2001;
language policies, programs, and attitudes
rules associated with adaptation within Flores, 2005; Gim Chung, 2001). More-
may develop negative feelings toward their
the host state. Thus, one is often judged by over, the heritage language acts as the
own heritage, language, and identity. Yet
presumably appropriate cultural expertise transmitter of cultural values, norms, and
Latino bilingual teacher candidates have
and behavioral expectations which can heritage information to the next genera-
access to both English language as well
include adopting language attitudes that tion. Without this knowledge and ability
as Spanish heritage language capital that
reflect the dominant ideals and notions to communicate, misunderstandings and
can be used to provide heritage language
of the nation-state. If one’s language and communicative distance can occur among
support for ELL newcomers classrooms
culture conflicts with dominant cultural family members.
in accordance with the Lau vs. Nichols
and linguistic ideals, this can affect one’s Schools act as purveyors of state linguis-
Supreme Court decision (Winstead, 2016).
status in mainstream society. Barker tic policy and contribute to the restriction
In this study we, as the researchers,
(2001) reports that 23 states in the U.S. or allowance of use of the primary language
utilized identity as a lens to describe the
have English-only policies and statements and, thus, can affect the ability to retain
conditions of individuals who must negoti-
that have negative consequences for second communicative closeness with family rela-
ate meaning within society and social insti-
language learners in schools. tions. Many bilingual teachers work with
tutions. Individuals’ identities are shaped
The number of states with English-only children who are linguistically similar to
in societal and institutional contexts (Gee,
policies has since been reduced by one. themselves and who have correspondingly
2000; Pavlenko & Blackledge, 2004). Often,
Proposition 227, California’s English-only been taught in schools affected by mono-
the heritage language, e.g., Spanish, has
policy, was repealed by voters through lingual policies.
been subordinated due to English-only
Proposition 58 in 2016. This paradigm Accordingly, monolingual policies have
and monolingual policies established in
shift appears to reveal Californians’ great- contributed to language loss and negative
various states and structured English
er awareness of the benefits of primary feelings by students towards their own
immersion (SEI) programs established in
language support, bilingualism, and dual culture and background (Fitts et al., 2008;
schools which disallow heritage language
immersion in schools. Martinez-Roldan & Malave, 2004). These
use to bridge bilingual children’s learning
deficit notions not only affect the bilingual
of English (Winstead, 2016).
Language Shame and Loss student’s sense of identity but also their
Thus, expectations of English-only
sense of self-value (Kaplan & Flum, 2012;
The majority of teachers who teach in instruction develop not only through
Phinney et al., 2001). Furthermore, those
schools are primarily from the dominant policy but also as such restrictions play
SPRING/SUMMER 2017
17
Research
out within particular contexts such as explore how to address deficit discourses and subsequent preparation as bilingual
schools. Accordingly, how individuals are in schools (Arce, 2004; Fitts, et al., 2008; teachers (Dewey, 1933; Freire, 1990; Shor
viewed within these contexts promotes Flores & Murillo, 2001). Educators and & Freire, 1987).
perceptions of their identity based on researchers need to counter deficit narra- Our intent was to have Spanish-En-
how they are recognized in society and by tives with teacher- and student-oriented glish bilingual-bicultural Latino teachers
institutions, e.g., ethnicity (Latino, Mex- approaches that honor the linguistic and question and reflect upon the linguistic,
ican), ability (ADHD), language (English cultural diversity of all players in schools social, and political contexts of their schol-
Language Learner), or being labeled “at (e.g., children, teachers, parents). arization. These teachers were challenged
risk” as suggested by Gee (2000). Addi- As the researchers for this study, we to deconstruct and reconstruct their lived
tional examples can include schooling advocate for bilingual teacher agency. We experiences through critical reflection of
and policy restrictions such as speaking have found that bilinguals grasp immi- social and historical issues concerning
only English in the classroom despite the grant learner cultural and linguistic chal- Latinos in education.
possibility that the children are newcom- lenges associated with their identity and
ers and have little knowledge of the new self-esteem and, therefore, have the where- Methodology
second language—English. withal to help children counter subtractive
This multiple case study of eight Spa-
Thus, the institutional identity, derived discourses and practices (Arce, 2004; Fitts
nish-English speaking bilingual-bicultural
from social and political policy as well as et al., 2008; Weisman & Hansen, 2010).
Latino teachers addressed their lived expe-
mainstream notions of identity affect how The challenge in teaching is to ensure
riences as bilingual children and teachers
students are viewed. Looking at who we that bilinguals have opportunities to work
in today’s classrooms.
are in the context of the institution, such with individuals who are like themselves,
as an ELL, or being a bilingual teacher, ver- e.g., serving as bilingual teachers who are Research questions explored include:
sus being mainstream and monolingual, acutely aware of the deficit discourses that How do bilingual bicultural teachers
or whether a child is officially diagnosed they might, unconsciously, engage in due perceive their native language use and
as an ELL or ADHD becomes part of the to their prior scholarization (Fitts et al., sense of self within society from childhood
institutional identity. How the child may 2008, Valdez et al., 2001). to adulthood?
be treated in this situation depends on Correspondingly, what are bilingual
the disposition of those individuals who The Study teachers’ perceptions of how their own
set school policy and their educational language learning experience might affect
Bilingual teachers come into the work-
philosophies. Similarly, individuals “… teaching students of similar linguistic and
can negotiate and contest how their traits place with a plethora of language capital, cultural backgrounds?
language registers, and language vari-
are to be seen (by themselves and others)
eties as well as cultural understanding Participants
in terms of the different perspectives on
associated with knowing more than one
identity” (Gee, 2000, p. 108). The study took place at a state univer-
language. Such expertise and capital can
Those who persist in believing that En- sity in a large urban area in the Pacific
be used to promote positive well-being for
glish-only should be the approach for ELLs Southwest of the United States. Over
plurilingual children in schools.
in schools restrict the students’ language 34,000 students attend this Hispanic-serv-
However, according to the literature,
identity. When students are not allowed to ing institution. To collect in-depth data
bilingual-bicultural individuals have
utilize their home language in school, cul- from teachers of a variety of linguistic
complex and contradictory ideas about
tural and linguistic communication with and cultural backgrounds, three male and
their own selves, voices, and identities as
their respective family members become five female teachers from different Latino
well as the ways in which they may regain
undervalued. Knowledge is constructed communities and of differing teaching ex-
their cultural and linguistic capital due
based on world views within societies and perience were chosen to participate in this
to deficit discourses in schools (Fitts, et
how children can and are socialized (Ka- two-year multiple case study. All of them
al., 2008; Tellez, 1999; Quiocho & Rios,
plan & Flum 2012) to the dominant norms were U.S. born Spanish native speakers
2000; Weisman, 2001; Weisman, Flores,
and dispositions of the host country. who were raised in different Latino cul-
& Valenciana, 2007). Exposure to deficit
Congruently, Latino social and cultural tures (e.g., Mexico, Guatemalan, Salva-
discourses and monolingual expectations
dispositions, in contrast with a mainstream dorean) and initially only spoke Spanish
in society not only affects bilingual chil-
and subtractive language environment, in the home but became fluent in English.
dren’s sense of bilingual-bicultural identi-
can cause conflicts of identity as students A recruitment survey indicated a va-
ty but also how mainstream teachers and
negotiate their bilingualness within a riety of teaching experience among the
bilingual teachers instruct and behave in
monolingual-oriented world (Fitts et al., participants, aged from 22 to 39, including
schools.
2008; Martinez-Roldan & Malave, 2004; three full-time inservice teachers and six
As researchers we were interested in
Quiocho & Rios, 2000; Tellez, 1999; Weis- substitute teachers. Participants have
whether the challenges bilingual teach-
man, 2001). Positive cultural and social K-8 teaching credentials and worked at
ers faced as children have ameliorated or
identity is associated with the well-being of various school sites. They were enrolled in
changed over the years as they work in
the child (Phinney et al., 2001) and should a Spanish-English bilingual authorization
school settings as adults. As such, we em-
be promoted in schools. program. Table 1 provides an overview of
ployed a participatory research design pro-
As national educational policies con- the participants’ age, background, school
moting dialogue and self-analysis through
tinue to devalue the cultural capital of design experienced in their early child-
critical reflection about the participants’
a growing cultural and linguistic pop- hood, the type of teaching credential they
perceptions of their lived experiences in
ulation, researchers and academicians hold, and a summary of their teaching
schools as bilingual-bicultural children
have a moral obligation to illuminate and experience and teaching positions at the
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
18
Research

time they were taking the two semester tractive schooling practices associated Data Collection
courses. with primary language loss. Participants
Data were collected over a period of two
then juxtaposed their own lived bilingual
years from the point when participants
Context childhood and teaching experiences on
were interviewed for the program, during
blogs and in journals to reflect upon these
Participants who passed oral and writ- the program, at program completion, and
issues and how to create culturally and
ten interviews demonstrating proficient then as follow-up to the program. In order
linguistically responsive learning environ-
level of Spanish-English bilingual ability to address the overarching questions pur-
ments. The teachers were encouraged to
were enrolled in a two-semester Spanish sued in this study, we analyzed qualitative
discuss language issues and instructional
Bilingual Authorization program. This data for recurring patterns using an open
approaches in groups. They also had oppor-
program prepared them to teach Span- coding scheme involving: (a) field notes
tunities to juxtapose personal narratives
ish-speaking ELLs through English-Span- from course participation, site visits, and
with broader social contexts, thereby al-
ish dual immersion teaching methods. The teachers’ classroom observation; (b) bilin-
lowing them to examine and critique the
curriculum concerned language and how gual teacher survey; (c) taped, translated,
ideology and curricula of schools.
language is learned within society. and transcribed interviews of individuals
The teachers were asked to reflect upon
Participants took courses which covered and focus groups; and (d) artifacts from
their assignments including answering
historical, theoretical, political, and legal class reflections. The data corpuses were
questions about factors affecting language
aspects of bilingual education. Throughout transcribed and reviewed for recurring
use from their own culturally and personal-
the courses, the participants reflected themes and a final coding paradigm was
ly relevant perspectives. As a consequence,
upon and analyzed historical, theoretical, achieved through intercoder agreement
they became aware of the ways in which
political, and legal implications of federal (Patton, 2002).
deficit discourses shamed their home
and state policies on bilingual programs in Initially, participants who indicated
language, their families, and their com-
both English and Spanish. Furthermore, an interest in the program were inter-
munities in ways that led to language loss.
participants studied how language viewed to determine their dispositions
Moreover, the teachers reported how this
variation, as well as how students’ toward teaching in bilingual schools. In
context continues in present-day schooling
life experiences, can be used to foster order to get a basic understanding of
situations in ways that limit or invalidate
bilingualism. participants’ initial Spanish proficiency,
their bilingual-bicultural expertise when
As part of this dual language program a Spanish essay writing assessment and
teaching in mainstream school contexts.
participants were asked to read about the Student Oral Language Observation
bilingual education issues including sub- Matrix (SOLOM) in Spanish were used.
Table 1
Participants
Participants’ Age Background School Design Type of Credential Experience Teaching
Pseudonym
Hernan 37 Salvadorean, Transitional Multiple Subject Substitute in dual immersion
born in U.S. bilingual program
Susana 23 Mexican, Structured Multiple Subject Completed student teaching;
born in U.S. English immersion also substituted in mainstream
(sink or swim), taught
from kindergarten under
Proposition 227
Angela 35 Mexican, Transitional Multiple Subject Teacher in mainstream, 1 year
born in U.S. bilingual program
Karina 39 Mexican, Structured Multiple Subject Teacher in mainstream, 11 years
born in U.S. English Immersion
Tomas 31 Mexican, Transitional Single Subject Student teacher; substitute
born in U.S. bilingual program; Social Studies
mainstream after 5th grade,
taught from age of 14
under Proposition 227
Erendira 29 Guatemalan, Bilingual transitional Multiple Subject Teacher in mainstream, 1 year;
born in U.S. program, taught under six months in dual immersion
Proposition 227
Gabriela 42 Mexican, Sink or swim Multiple Subject Teacher in mainstream, 4 years;
born in U.S. pink-slip
Juan 36 Mexican, Structured English Multiple Subject Teacher in mainstream, 13 years;
born in U.S. immersion program pink-slip
SPRING/SUMMER 2017
19
Research
Participants were rated from one to three For recurring patterns within each indi- boyfriends or girlfriends, teachers who
(weak, average, strong) based on: (1) their vidual case, the “template for coding a case valued the language, as well as religious
Spanish proficiency; and (2) their answers study” (Creswell, 2006, p. 172) was used. and political community organizations).
to questions about their dispositions Recurring codes were further collapsed These participants recalled often feeling
towards maintaining the first language, into major categories and themes. The proud of using Spanish as their primary
communicating with parents, and knowl- coding paradigm was used for re-analyzing language before entering schools.
edge about factors that contribute to ELL the data to achieve intercoder reliability
achievement. Afterwards they wrote an (Patton, 2002). The within-case analysis Family and Friends
essay in Spanish about a topic related to continued until the second round of data
Family and friends made these bilingual
ELLs. Those who had passed the initial collection was finished, including: (1) bilin-
teachers as children and adolescents feel
assessments received feedback about any gual teacher survey; (2) blogs and artifacts
welcomed and “special.” Thus, outside the
language weaknesses they could work on from class reflections; (3) taped, translated,
schooling system they had the support
before as well as during the two-semester and transcribed interviews of focus group
of their families where their language
courses and fieldwork. interviews; and (4) field notes from course
was valued in contrast to monolingual
Data gleaned from their fieldwork participation.
discourses and messages. Angela noted in
included journaling about content les- To increase reliability, the two re-
her autobiography,
sons taught in Spanish (e.g., science, searchers coded and analyzed the data
mathematics, and social studies) as well separately by using the same case ap- Having a big family meant that we also had
as a documentation of competencies met proach and then compared codes and many birthday celebrations, graduations,
quinceañeras, weddings, anniversaries,
by their field supervisor. Additional data analysis. To clarify information and con-
and other special family events where
related to critical reflection about their firm codes patterns and interpretations,
most of the family (uncles, aunts, cousins,
course readings (e.g., three textbooks, and member check and follow-up interviews
grandparents, and other family members)
articles) in both Spanish and English and were conducted and revisions were made gathered. So, I was constantly exposed to
other assignments were also collected and during the data analysis. my primary language. […] I remember
reviewed. In order to compare results with the going to Mexican markets, restaurants, or
At the end of the program, participants complexity of the issue identified in the clothing stores and speaking in Spanish
were provided with a demographic and literature review, cross-case analysis was to the employees. The signs and brochures
were written in Spanish, so that helped
qualitative survey to garner information used to compare and contrast similarities
me with my Spanish writing. […] All
about their teaching dispositions as well and differences between cases and further
of these experiences helped me become
as teaching experiences before and during subtract cross-case patterns based on pat-
bilingual/biliterate.
the bilingual program (e.g., teachers were terns identified in the single-case analysis.
asked to reflect upon their own experienc- This step helped “develop generalizations Thus, family and their connection to
es as bilingual students, their work with about the case in terms of the themes and community activities and cultural events
mainstream as well as bilingual teachers how they compare and contrast with pub- helped keep the Spanish language and
in the program, any major challenges they lished literature” (Creswell, 2006, p.164). cultural heritage alive. These children
believe bilingual teachers and ELLs face, were validated within their homes and
and describe their application of their Results and Discussion their communities.
knowledge and pedagogical practices).
Phone interviews were conducted to clarify Discussion and analysis indicated the Church and Community Programs
bilingual teachers were able to relate
information. A follow-up focus group inter- The church and other community pro-
their teaching experiences through critical
view was conducted five months later to grams (e.g., Puente Project for Karina)
reflection about language policy, linguicism
see if they had new perceptions or notions were also noted as foundations for their
as stimulus for discovering their bilingual
about their experiences in the program. language retention and maintenance.
selves, voice, and role as a bilingual teacher
Thus, these combined data sources served As Juan noted, “Church is a place that
vis a vis social justice orientations and
as the basis for each “case” or bilingual rings loudly in my ear when reflecting
native language use in the program. Major
authorization program participant. upon my experiences with listening to the
themes emerged based on data coding and
Spanish language.” And, similarly, the
analysis, including: (1) language retention
Data Analysis church provided more formal training and
and pride at home and in the community
The authors utilized a multiple case understanding in Spanish for others, “I
while (2) language shame in school con-
approach employing within-case analysis would attend Sunday school and summer
tributes to (3) language loss, (4) negatively
and cross-case analysis (Creswell, 2006, camps/special events at church in Spanish”
affects teaching, and causes (5) cultural
p.172). All data (e.g., interview transcrip- (Angela, autobiography).
rejection and intergenerational distance.
tion, journals, and field notes) were input Gabriela spoke about how her parents
into a computer and archived separately in and siblings helped her maintain and
Home Language Retention
individual case folders. A detailed descrip- develop her primary language. Moreover,
and Language Pride
tion of each individual case and its setting reading periodicals such as La Opinión
were made at the beginning of the data The data revealed that primary lan- and attending church reinforced this prac-
analysis. The within-case theme analysis guage retention and development was tied tice. “Sundays, going to mass, I remember
started after the first round of data collec- to familial and positive academic support. learning how to respond and listen to the
tion pre-interviews, journals and survey Language and cultural maintenance was homily…everything seemed and sounded
data were collected. primarily due to contact with others who perfect in Spanish.” As they wrote their
spoke Spanish (e.g., family and friends,
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
20
Research
pieces, a nostalgia for Spanish and “feeling Despite Hernan’s initial negativity to- tolerate deficit discourses. These bilinguals
right” in Spanish was often noted. wards his language and bilingualism, he were reprimanded and humiliated for uti-
Erendira similarly mentioned, “My had gained a new perspective, “I initially lizing the Spanish language in schools, or
grandma also always had her bible around did not value becoming bi-literate/ bilin- for even having a Spanish accent.
and she would read it to us. So that’s how gual because of all the adversity I dealt
I was introduced to reading in Spanish.” with, but today I do take great pride and Language Shame as Children
There is an acknowledgment among the value for the decision my parents took for
All eight participants reported lan-
participants that language communica- both my sister and I [to utilize Spanish at
guage shame or sensed language em-
tion within the community was a valid home].” As Tomas also noted,
barrassment and anxiety due to harsh
way of learning the primary language.
Young children are like sponges and I was criticisms as children and adolescents.
Those in the community can pull from
taking everything in. My grandmother While Susana, Karina, and Tomas report-
rich cultural and linguistic resources
never referred to me by my name. Rather, ed language restriction while teaching in
(Weisman et al., 2007). she referred to me as, “mi rey” (“my king”).
schools (the topic of the following section),
At 5 years old, I wondered if perhaps I really
they reported little or no language shame
Culturally and Linguistically Responsive was a king and it just hadn’t been made
during their primary years in schools since
Teachers and/or Schooling Practices official yet. My grandmother always had a
way of making me feel special. It’s no wonder they were enrolled in either transitional
Participants reported that particular that I always listened to what she had to say. bilingual programs or programs that
teachers valued their language and cultur- Conversations I had with my parents and valued their primary language. However,
al expertise as well as commented about grandmother during these times still ring five other teachers reported specific in-
instances in which primary language was clearly in my head today. stances of shame. They were shamed and
used to help students in the classroom. In reprimanded about the use of Spanish or
As children, some of the participants
Angela’s case, her kindergarten teacher translanguaging between Spanish and
took pride in being able to help their par-
allowed the use of Spanish support, “My English, or they were shamed due to their
ents understand the language as transla-
kindergarten teacher, Mrs. Dalton, did not inability to pronounce English correctly or
tors. Susana blogged,
speak Spanish, but I remember Ms. Paz was accurately utilize grammar when writing.
an aide in the classroom who helped me and I was also a translator for my parents. […] As Gabriela wrote in her autobiography,
other English learners.” I would talk to my mom/dad in Spanish
and then I would translate it to the worker Throughout my education I have been
Hernan similarly attributed his in-
in English. The worker would then answer ridiculed by teachers in front of peers
creased confidence with both languages
the questions in English and then I would because of the way I pronounced words
and higher grades due to a White male translate back to parents what the worker and my thick accent. I can remember my
high school teacher who showed interest has stated. This also continued with mail, seventh-grade history teacher, “Speak
in him, his language, and his culture. He when my mom received the mail and it was English, what are you trying to say?” I
wrote in his autobiography that in English I would translate it from English remember being laughed at and since then
into Spanish for my parents. I would read I learned to stay quiet and avoid answering
. . . my English teacher, coach, and mentor the letter and then I would tell my parents any teacher unless the teacher made me
[…] taught me to become acculturated what the letter said in Spanish. This is feel safe…but it was not easy speaking
and respectful to all people. I learned how I maintained my Spanish and English English at school or through my college
the importance of getting educated. Most through those early years. years. […] I still fear speaking in either
importantly he taught me about myself and language.
how I have so much potential but I had to Family and particular teachers were
become confident and proud of what I have influential in promoting cultural and lin- Not only did the teachers report “fear”
and what I am. […]. He would make jokes guistic maintenance and pride. As such, or feeling intimidated about teaching
and occasionally speak Spanish. He loved inklings of their bilingual value and worth Spanish, the term fear emerges again as
the language and mentioned that he would drifted against the wave of monolingual they recounted their experiences as bilin-
have liked learning the language when
discourses. gual children. Fear was associated with
he was younger. He always maintained a
criticism and ridicule about the “inappro-
positive attitude and helped me various
times with homework, classwork and Language Shame and Loss priate” use of the primary language that
projects […] My attitude for school and life affected their self-esteem and confidence
While these individuals wrote about
changed drastically. I had made my mind in reading. As a result of these types of
how they felt supported by their families,
and was going to go to college. Although, I discourses, Gabriela, Juan, and Hernan
in their home, and in their communities,
was not sure where I wanted to go and/or reported being behind in reading and
what I wanted to do I was going to work on they also revealed that they felt shame feeling as if they would never make it.
my reading and writing in English. when they entered school. To understand
Hernan noted in his autobiography,
the bilingual teachers’ perceptions of their
Language Pride native language and English development, In elementary school I hardly participated
participants were asked to reflect upon in class discussions. Most of my teachers
When these teachers were younger,
carried harsh consequences for using
how their experiences shaped their lives
family and friends, church and the Latino English incorrectly and worst for trying to
within the context of society and institu-
community, and culturally and linguisti- use Spanish to replace English. My reading
tions as teachers and students.
cally responsive teachers and/or school- suffered greatly both because of practice and
ing practices as a whole contributed to The following section reveals reports of fear of being lectured. […] Teacher remarks
bilingual-bicultural primary language shame specifically connected to native lan- and constant reminders of my limitations
guage restrictions which caused them to was the biggest obstacle between me and a
retention (e.g. verbal, written, reading, and
lose confidence in their learning ability and book. In class I had a great fear of reading.
communication) as well as language pride.
SPRING/SUMMER 2017
21
Research
In fifth grade I had a teacher who would istrator that she couldn’t speak Spanish not involved or informed with programs that
write students names on the board every with her students: were offered at the school.
time you mispronounce words during
reading. This teacher would almost always “You can’t speak Spanish. Only English The respondents mentioned that par-
pick me to read. By the time I was done in this class.” That was something really ents were typically blamed for children’s
reading I had my name on the board with difficult for me. I remember a teacher that lack of language success even when the
multiple checkmarks. told me that she once played a song [in parents were not fully included in schools.
Spanish] that administrators who were
Participants also reported that children
Hernan continued to speak about how conducting a class visit didn’t approve of.
were retained due to their lack of English
his “miserable experience” in primary Being a recently graduated teacher in my
without consideration of their prior content
school made him “hate school,” which not first year, I was scared upon hearing that.
knowledge in the primary language. Par-
only affected his self-esteem but also his
Hearing how another teacher utilized ents, however, felt a sense of relief when
confidence to succeed in school. Similar to
a Spanish song and was reprimanded was they could communicate their ideas in
Gabriela, he noted, “I graduated [from el-
intimidating for Angela. The term fear or the native language to find out how their
ementary] but was not proficient in either
native language intimidation resurged in children were performing in schools and
language. I became self-absorbed with all
their reflections. Consequently, fear of re- what they could do to help.
the negativity that surrounded me that
prisal prevented them from utilizing their In the focus group interview, Gabriela
I started to believe that I was not going
native language to help bilinguals. Tomas noted,
anywhere but worst that I was dumb.”
indicated in his survey,
These same teachers have noted in their The school I was at previously did not make
experiences as bilinguals that it was not Some have preferred that I use as little parents feel welcome. […] Many mainstream
safe to utilize the native language. They Spanish as possible. As stated earlier, I have teachers are not familiar with the culture.
were punished for the use of the language come across teachers that automatically They were quick to make assumptions.
have low expectations of ELs. I have even Many families felt comfortable sharing
with which they identify with their fam-
come across a teacher that directly said to a their personal life experience [in Spanish
ilies. They “were not going anywhere” as
student that used Spanish to talk to a friend with me] and shed tears during conference
Gabriela said. They thought they were in class, “You are in the United States! We time. Not feeling they can use the [primary]
“dumb.” While in the Bilingual Authori- don’t speak Spanish here and not in my language in the classroom because you feel
zation Program, it was emphasized that it classroom” […] very unfortunate. that the district has stressed English-only.
takes at least five to seven years to learn
As a child, Gabriela was similarly told The data also revealed how some pro-
a new language (Thomas & Collier, 2002).
not to use her primary language which she fessional mainstream teacher colleagues
and two others attributed to the “delay” as well as principals who worked with
Language Shaming Attitudes
of their bilingual language growth. And, them were misinformed in California. It
in Schools Affect Teaching of ELLs
now, as a teacher, Gabriela also echoed was not illegal to use the primary lan-
Field notes and focus group interviews the comments of seven other participants guage in classrooms despite the passage of
revealed that participants were not in this study who were told not to help Proposition 227. The initiative promoted
initially confident about their language ELLs when teaching in mainstream class- the overwhelming use of English and
capital and questioned their ability to even rooms as substitutes or in their teaching actually allowed for native language and
become bilingual teachers. While growing placements. “You can’t use your Spanish bilingual programs for newcomers. No
up as bilinguals there was shame in being to translate for your student, they need percentage was provided as to how much
deficient in English associated with their to speak and learn English” (Gabriela, English might be utilized. However, this
use of the Spanish language, code-switch- survey). proposition has been misrepresented
ing, and thick Spanish accents. All of them In addition, the participants reported and utilized to stem and shame primary
related how deficit discourses had affected that negative native language dispo- language use in classrooms.1
their own schooling, and that they had sitions or beliefs held by teachers and In summary, for a number of the parti-
been restricted and shamed from using administrators often transferred to the cipants, the inability to use their language
their native language with newcomers in students and parents. The lack of Latino and punishment caused them shame
schools in present-day circumstances. success in schools was often blamed on which was, consequently, detrimental
These bilingual-bicultural teachers parents’ use of the primary versus English to their confidence in learning and
reflected about deficit discourses and often language. Karina noted, overall well-being. However, all have
commented about their own experiences
noted that supportive experiences with
My experience has been that mainstream
or the experiences of other bilinguals like
teachers think that students that do not particular teachers and professors at the
themselves within the context of their lives
speak English are stupid or incompetent. university level who valued their language
as teachers. They noted how present and
They are frustrated when they can’t were instrumental in their success and
past English-only deficit discourses are communicate with students and complain motivated them to pursue bilingual
embedded in overall teacher notions of about the lack of resources. A lot of teachers educational career paths.
what are considered “appropriate” learn- blame the parents for the language barrier,
Four focus group interview participants
ing practice and how bilingual teacher instead of taking the time to learn of ways
mentioned they were unsure about their
language expertise is repressed in schools. to communicate with the parents and the
bilingual ability or whether they would
student. […] By working in a mainstream
All of the participants remembered expe-
classroom, I got to see how students were be “good enough” to participate in the
riences of language shaming practices,
being retained because they didn’t know the bilingual program. Initial interviews also
policies, or attitudes in schools.
language. They would fall behind because revealed participants were skeptical about
Angela reported in the focus group they didn’t have anyone to help them for their actual language capital and exper-
interview that she was told by her admin- more than an hour a day. The parents were tise. However, supportive approaches and
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
22
Research
positive acknowledgment of their bilingual Reports of ridicule and shame in the […] Something interesting occurred as I
and capital were essential in countering classroom caused a number of the par- got older: The interactions that I had with
deficit notions and negative voices. ticipants to speak and utilize Spanish less, my family were becoming less. (Tomas,
It may just be that without this type of contributing to their language loss and autobiography)
support that acknowledged their language cultural rejection. Participants noted that intergen-
know-how and expertise, they might have Even those who experienced more posi- erational conflict occurred when the
heeded monolingual discourses that would tive schooling practices reported language grandchildren are unable to speak to
continue to lower their sense of well-being loss and that greater use of the dominant the grandmother or even their parents.
and confidence and their ability to succeed. language minimized their use of Spanish Thus, less contact and use of the pri-
In addition, they might have lost not only by middle school. Thus, bilinguals are not mary language provided a gap in social
their language and self-esteem but also inured to negative language discourses communication (Flores & Murillo, 2001).
their chances of working in bilingual ca- despite some Spanish language use in the Karina and others had extreme instances
reers, supporting and helping bilinguals classroom or at home. in which this communication gap even
like themselves.
occurred between parents and children.
My Spanish started to change when I
Juan’s words summarized the impor-
entered middle school. I spoke less Spanish “This year I came across a parent who
tance of primary language expertise for
around my friends and family. The older could not communicate with her son due
bilinguals,
I got, speaking in English became normal to the English/Spanish language barrier.
Our language is so much more than and more comfortable. I don’t know where Mother only speaks Spanish and son only
communication to others. It is our I got an accent from, but I started speaking speaks English,” (Karina, survey)
English like I was from “The Valley.” My
connection to our family, culture, and Language loss is due to hidden mes-
friends would always make fun of me
community. I have learned first-hand that sages in schools that deny bilingual-bi-
because I would say things like, “Oh my god!”
the weaker your primary language becomes, cultural identities through shaming as
or “My name is Erin.” I changed the way I
the less strength your connection to family,
said my name because every time I said it to well as blaming. The native language use
community and culture will be. I would not
someone, they could never pronounce it right continues to be blamed for transnationals
say that I have lost my language, but it has
because they could not roll the “r.” Honestly, ability to learn in the second language.
weakened over the years. Fortunately, I was
able to communicate with my grandmother I think I tried to lose my Spanish because Language shame causes individuals to
regularly and effectively, but my cousin was I thought that I wouldn’t be better than distance themselves from their loved ones
people because I was a minority. (Erendira,
the one who was not as fortunate. He lost and take on a more “mainstream” persona
autobiography)
at least 80% of his Spanish-speaking skill in schools, to change their names, change
and his connection with people like our Thus, these individuals come to un- their accents, or maybe even more to be
grandmother was the cost. […] Looking
derstand that English has higher status “cool.” Furthermore, they end up blam-
back, I see now how fortunate I was to have
than Spanish not only in terms of use but ing the native language for their lack of
been exposed to so much Spanish at home.
also in terms of their placements in class- progress in school and their overall lack
rooms. Erendira also recalled that she was of confidence.
Cultural Rejection,
placed at the back of the classroom with
Intergenerational Distance
other ELLs and aides who translated for Conclusions
While the prior section reveals issues
them. “My mom did not like the idea of me
about the non-welcoming atmosphere of Family and friends, Church, the Latino
being labeled as an English Learner” and,
native language use in the mainstream community, and culturally and linguistical-
therefore, she was pulled out of the classes.
classroom, the participants also reported ly responsive teachers contributed to the
Bilingual pull-out, unlike dual programs,
how the shame associated with deficit dis- participants’ primary language pride and
does not allow for the equal treatment and
courses contributed to their own cultural development. However, exposure to nega-
use of both languages. Thus, the dominant
rejection. All eight participants noted that tive discourses about participants’ primary
language is seen as being better. There
their language loss began in their elemen- language in schools led to shame, silencing,
is a desire to change and succumb to
tary school years and was associated with and primary language loss. Despite having
the monolingual discourse, to deny one’s
deficit discourses and practices in schools. bilingual cultural capital and expertise,
background, to lose one’s accent. In this
Two participants, in particular, reported these bilinguals experienced some form of
case, Erendira learned to speak the “Valley
how some of their elementary and middle language shame and loss throughout their
Girl”2 variety of English her mainstream
school teachers denigrated their language years of schooling as bilingual children and
English-speaking friends spoke.
to the point that it caused them to question teachers in mainstream schools.
Gabriela, who also reported being ridi-
their bilingual identity. Others reported Bilingual teachers’ native language
culed for her accent notes that the loss of
teasing and/or language and cultural stig- was restricted due to language policies
language or the replacement of English
matization in schools as youngsters. and schooling practices. Reports of ridicule
over Spanish caused intergenerational
Tomas and Erendira’s parents did not and shame in the classroom caused these
conflict. Tomas noticed that especially as a
want them in English learner programs due bilingual teachers to utilize Spanish less,
high school senior he had begun to distance
to the stigmatization of being “other.” Al- contributing to their language loss as well
himself from his family when he relied more
though Tomas reported not being ashamed, as causing them to question their identity
on English than Spanish.
he reported shaming experiences that de- associated with Spanish. Language loss, as
nied his language capital and ability to help […] we never gave Spanish a second reported, is also related to a loss of oneself
others. Susana and Angela reported feeling thought. I hadn’t realized it before now, but and one’s identity as evident in their ne-
this was likely the point in my life when my
the least shame about their language, but gation of the language, themselves, and
speaking ability in English began to take
they reported language loss. rejection of their family.
the lead over ability to speak in Spanish.
SPRING/SUMMER 2017
23
Research
Language shame that bilingual teach- Further examination of policies and ond generation immigrant youth in Montreal
ers experienced as children did not practices associated with ELL gaps and the and Paris. Journal of Intercultural Relations,
disappear once they became teachers. preparation, or lack thereof, of bilingual 34(3), 191-207.
Bourdieu, P. (1977). Outline of a theory of prac-
Instead this primary language negation teachers is indicative of societal agendas
tice. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University
continued when teaching in mainstream and postcolonial world views that continue
Press.
schools. Moreover, bilingual teachers re- to promote language of origin hierarchies
Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J.
ported Spanish language shaming and an and monolingualism. Researchers must G. Richardson (ed.), Handbook of theory and
inability to utilize their Spanish language continue to question policies and practic- research for the sociology of education (pp.,
expertise to help ELLs in classrooms. Lan- es that negatively shape children as well 241-258). New York, NY: Greenwood Press.
guage shame and loss extended well into as the teacher workforce in multilingual Brinbaum, Y., & Cebolla-Boado, H. (2007). The
their adult teaching careers. classrooms. school careers of ethnic minority youth.
Ethnicities, 7(3), 445-473. .
Some participants were cajoled and
Creswell, J. W. (2007) Qualitative inquiry &
intimidated into relinquishing Spanish Notes research––choosing among five traditions.
as a language resource that could help
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
1 When Proposition 227 passed in 1998, the
scaffold ELL understanding of content Darder, A., & Uriarte, M. (2013). Language
first author, who taught newcomers in a bilin-
knowledge. Similarly, participants describe policies: A postcolonial analysis of language
gual program, was initially told by the school
how language shaming extends to ELLs and schooling. Postcolonial Directions in
administration to speak only in English to the
and parents when teacher dispositions do bilingual newcomers in her class. In the end, the Education, 2(1), 6-67.
not honor home language capital. administration decided that the Proposition did de Cohen, C., Deterding, N., & Clewell, B. C.
(2005). Who’s left behind? Immigrant chil-
Such shaming experiences denied these not prohibit primary language instruction.
dren in high and low LEP schools. Washing-
bilingual teachers’ language capital and 2 A type of accent used particularly in South-
ton, DC: The Urban Institute.
ability to help students who may face ern California (Ehrenfreund, 2013).
de Jong, E. J., Harper, C. A. (2005). Preparing
similar challenges. Understanding bilin- mainstream teachers for English-Language
gual-bicultural Latino teachers’ language References Learners: Is being a good teacher good enough?
shame and loss should help educators and Teacher Education Quarterly, 32(2), 101-124.
Arce, J. (2004). Latino bilingual teachers: The
policymakers rethink issues in the educa- struggle to sustain emancipatory pedagogy Dewey, J. (1933). How we think. Lexington, MA:
tion system and develop more welcoming in the public schools. International Journal D.C. Heath & Company.
Ehrenfreund, M. (2013). Linguists explain how to
programs that permit bilingual teachers to of Qualitative Studies in Education, 17(2),
tell statements from questions in Valley Girl
utilize their expertise to instill and retain 227-246.
talk. Washington Post. http://www.washington-
cultural linguistic pride. Alanís, I. (2010). A Texas two-way bilingual pro-
post.com/national/health-science/linguists-ex-
gram: Its effects on linguistic and academic
plain-how-to-tell-statements-from-questions-
achievement, Bilingual Research Journal,
Implications 24(3), 225-248. in-valley-girl-talk/2013/12/05/1bc64e4c-5cf6-
11e3-95c2-13623eb2b0e1_story.html
Arellano-Houchin, A., Flamenco, C., Merlos,
Researchers are encouraged to conduct Feagin, J. R. (1984). Racial and ethnic relations.
M.M., & Segura, L. (2001). Has California’s
studies about ways to validate and tap the Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
passage of Proposition 227 made a difference
rich expertise that bilingual-bicultural Fitts, S., Winstead, L., Weisman, E. M., Flores,
in the way we teach? The Urban Review,
teachers bring to the teacher workforce 33(3), 221-235. S., & Valenciana, C. (2008). Coming to voice:
as transnationals and plurilinguals. Austin, T., Willett, & Gebhard, M. (2010). Preparing bilingual bicultural teachers for
social justice. Equity & Excellence in Edu-
Researchers also have a moral obligation Challenges for Latino educators crossing
cation, 41(3), 347-371.
to address whether bilingual teaching symbolic, cultural, and linguistic boundaries:
Fitts, S., & Weisman, E.M. (2008). Exploring
shortages can be used as excuses to Coming to voice in teacher preparation with
questions of social justice in bilingual/bicul-
competing voices. Journal of Latinos and
promote monolingual policies reflective of tural teacher education: Towards a parity
Education, 9(4), 261-283.
mainstream and dominant societal pre- of participation. Urban Review, 42, 373-393.
Barker, V. (2001). The English-only movement:
judices that shame plurilingual students Flores, S. (2005). Teaching Latino children and
A communication analysis of changing
and bilingual teachers in schools. perceptions of language vitality. Journal of youth. The High School Journal, 88(2), 1-2.
Thus, researchers should further explore Communication, 51(1), 3-37. Flores, S., & Murillo, E. (2001). Power, language,
and ideology: Historical and contemporary
the context of students’ and teachers’ expe- Beardsmore, H. (2008). Language promotion
notes on the dismantling of bilingual educa-
riences associated with schooling practices by European supranational institutions. In
tion. Urban Review, 33(3), 183-206.
that either impinged or possibly benefited O. Garcia (ed.), Bilingual education in the
Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New
21st Century (pp. 197-217). Chichester, UK:
bilingual-bicultural teachers’ awareness York, NY: Seabury Press.
Wiley-Blackwell.
about their own language experiences that Gee, J. P. (2000). Identity as an analytic lens for
Berry, J., & Sabatier, C. (2010). Acculturation,
prepare them to counter deficit discourses research in education. Review of Research in
discrimination, and adaptation among sec-
that affect learners like themselves. Re- ond generation immigrant youth in Montreal Education, 25, 99-125.
search focus should be on the approaches and Paris. Journal of Intercultural Relations, Gim Chung, R. H. (2001). Gender, ethnicity, and
acculturation in intergenerational conflict of
that administrators and teachers can use 34(3), 191-207.
Asian American college students. Research
to develop students’ identities in ways Bireda, S., & Chait, R. (2011). Increasing teacher
Report. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Mi-
that promote self-value through cultural diversity: Strategies to improve the teacher
nority Psychology, 7(4), 376-386.
workforce. Center for American Progress. Re-
connections (Gutiérrez, 2008; Kaplan & Gollnick, D. M., & Chinn, P. C. (2013). Multi-
trieved from https://cdn.americanprogress.
Flum, 2012). Researchers similarly have a cultural education in a pluralistic society.
org/wp-content/uploads/issues/2011/11/pdf/
moral obligation to question the parity of Columbus, OH: Pearson Education.
chait_diversity.pdf.
hiring practices as well as state initiatives Berry, J., & Sabatier, C. (2010). Acculturation, Gutiérrez, K. D. (2008). Developing a socioc-
intended to address gaps in ELL education discrimination, and adaptation among sec- ritical literacy in the third space. Reading
Research Quarterly, 43, 148–164.
MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION
24
Research
Hays, D. G. (2008). Assessing multicultural Padilla, A., Lindholm, K., Chen, A., Duran, R., making in Urbantown. Journal of Multilin-
competence in counselor trainees: A review of Hakuta K., et al. (1991). The English-only gual and Multicultural Development, 27(3),
instrumentation and future directors. Jour- movement: Myths, reality, and implications for 211-224.
nal of Counseling & Development, 86(1), 95- psychology. American Psychologist, 46(2), 120. Vertovec, S. (2001). Transnationalism and
101. doi: 10.1002/j.1556-6678.2008.tb00630.x Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and identity. Journal of Ethnic and Migration
Helot, C. (2002). Bilingualism and language ed- evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Thousand Studies, 27(4), 573-582.
ucation in French primary schools: Why and Oaks, CA.: Sage. Vertovec, S. (2004). Migrant transnationalism
how should migrant languages be valued? Pavlenko, A., & Blackledge, A. (2004). Negoti- and modes of transformation. International
International Journal of Bilingual Education ation of identities in multilingual contexts. Migration Review, 38(3), 970-1001.
and Bilingualism, 5(2), 96-112. Buffalo, NY: Multilingual Matters. Vonderlack-Navarro, R. (2014). Preparing all
Helot, C., & Young, A. (2005). The notion of diver- Phinney, J. S., Horencyzk, G. Liebkind, K., & Ved- educators for linguistically and culturally di-
sity in language education: Policy and prac- der, P. (2001). Ethnic identity, immigration, verse students: A policy perspective. Present-
tice at primary level in France. Language, and well-being: An interactional perspective. ed at Language Matters Conference, Loyola
Culture, and Curriculum, 18(3), 242-257. Journal of Social Issues, 57(3), 493-510. University-Chicago School of Education,
Hite, C. E., & Evans, L. S. (2006). Mainstream Quiocho, A.,& Rios, F. (2000). The power of Chivago, IL. Retrieved from http://www.luc.
first-grade teachers’ understanding of strate- their presence: Minority group teachers and edu/media/lucedu/education/pdfs/language-
gies for accommodating the needs of English schooling. Reviewof Educational Research, matters/Vonderlack-Navarrow_presenta-
language learners. Teacher Education Quar- 70(4), 485–528. tion_Preparing-All-Educators-for-ELLs.pdf
terly, 33(2), 89-110. Régner, I., & Loose, F. (2006). Relationship of so- Wang, C., & Winstead, L. (2016). Handbook of
Holland, D., Fox, G., & Daro, V. (2008). Social ciocultural factors and academic self-esteem research on foreign language education in the
movements and collective identity: A de- to school grades and school disengagement digital age. Hershey, PA: IGI Global.
centered dialogic view. Anthropological in North African French adolescents. British Weisman, E. M. (2001). Bicultural identity and
Quarterly, 81(1), 95-125. Journal of Social Psychology, 45, 777-797. language attitudes: Perspectives of four Lati-
Honawar, V. (2009). TEACHER GAP: Training Rueda, R., & Stillman, J. (2012). The 21st centu- na teachers. Urban Education, 36, 203-225.
gets boost. Education Week, 28(17), 28. ry teacher: A cultural perspective. Journal of Weisman, E. M., Flores, S. Y., & Valenciana, C.
Hones, D., Aguilar, N., & Thao, S. (2009). Becom- Teacher Education, 64(4), 245-253. (2007). Building bilingual-bicultural learn-
ing a bilingual teacher in the era of Praxis II. Sabatier, C. (2008). Ethnic and national identity ing communities: Experiences of Latino
Multicultural Education, 16(3), 18. among second-generation immigrant adoles- teacher candidates. Journal of Hispanics
Kaplan, A., & Flum, H. (2012). Identity forma- cents in France: The role of social context and Higher Education, 6(3), 191-208
tion in educational settings: A critical focus family. Journal of Adolescence, 31, 185-205. Weisman, E. M., & Hansen, L. (2008). Teaching
for education in the 21st century. Contem- San Miguel, G., Jr. (2008). The schooling of Mex- in urban and suburban schools: Perspectives
porary Educational Psychology, 37, 171-175. icanos in the southwest, 1848-1891. of Latino preservice teachers. Urban Educa-
Leavitt, A. (2013). Teaching English language Schildkraut, D. J. (2001). Official-English and tion, 43, 653-670.
learners in the mainstream classroom: The the states: Influences on declaring English Winstead, L. (2010) Immigrant perceptions of
methods teachers use. The Researcher, 25(1), the official language in the United States. their adjustment to France: A phenomenol-
79-93. Political Research Quarterly, 54(2), 445-447. ogy. In P. Cunningham & N. Fretwell (eds.)
Lucas, T., & Grinberg, J. (2008). Responding Shor, I., Freire, P. (1987). A pedagogy for liber- Lifelong learning and active citizenship (pp.
to the linguistic reality of mainstream ation: dialogues on transforming education. 202-214). London, UK: Children’s Identity
classrooms: Preparing all teachers to South Hadley, MA, Bergin & Garvey. and Citizenship in Europe.
teach English language learners. In M. Co- Téllez, K. (1999). Mexican-American preservice Winstead, L. (2016). Mexican heritage ELL
chran-Smith, S. Feiman-Martinez-Roldan, teachers and the intransigency of the ele- and native English speaker interaction: A
C.M., Malave, G. (eds.), Language ideologies mentary school curriculum. Teaching and case study of tandem language learning
mediating literacy and identity in bilingual Teacher Education, 15(5), 555-570. strategies. In C. Wang, & L. Winstead (Eds.),
contexts. Journal of Early Childhood Liter- Thomas, W. P., & Collier, V. P. (2002). A national Handbook of research on foreign language
acy, 4(2), 155-180. study of school effectiveness for language mi- education in the digital age (pp. 334-364).
Macedo, D. (2000). The colonialism of the En- nority students’ long-term academic achieve- Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.
glish-only movement. Educational Research- ment. Santa Cruz, CA, and Washington, DC: doi:10.4018/978-1-5225-0177-0.ch016.
er, 29(3), 15-24. Center for Research on Education, Diversity
Montrul, S. (2005). Second language acquisi- & Excellence. www.crede.ucsc.edu/research/
tion and first language loss in adult early llaa/l.l_final.html
bilinguals: Exploring some differences and Tse, L. (2001). Resisting and reversing language
similarities. Second Language Research shift: Heritage-language resilience among
21(3), 199-249. U.S. native biliterates. Harvard Education
Mummendey, A., & Wenzel, M. (1999). Social Review, 71(4), 676-708.
discrimination and tolerance in intergroup Valdez, E. (2001). Winning the battle, losing the
relations: Reactions to intergroup difference. war: Bilingual teachers and post-Proposition
Personality and Social Psychology Review, 227. The Urban Review, 33(3). 237-253.
3(2), 158-174. Varghese, M. (2006). Bilingual teachers-in-the-
SPRING/SUMMER 2017
25