ERIC EJ1160267: Effectiveness of LifeRAFT Undergraduate Helping Skills Training Model

2017·0.14 MB·English

by  ERIC

Effectiveness of LifeRAFT undergraduate
helping skills training model
Elizabeth L. Campbell, Kenzie Davidson & Spencer M. Davidson
LifeRAFT, a helping skills training model for undergraduate paraprofessionals, addresses training needs
for applied psychology skills for undergraduate psychology majors. LifeRAFT draws from three empirically
supported psychotherapy treatments to introduce counselling theory and encourage helping skill progression.
Trainees learn practical helping strategies appropriate for paraprofessional use that are drawn from
cognitive, behavioural, and emotion-focused therapies and are taught to work interactively with thoughts,
actions, and feelings to promote client exploration and transformation. In a study of LifeRAFT’s training
effectiveness, 18 undergraduate students received LifeRAFT training. Training effectiveness was explored
pre- and post-training using client, counsellor, and observer rating forms. Results suggest that LifeRAFT is
an effective method for training undergraduates in helping skills.
UNDERGRADUATES NEED effective building at the graduate level (e.g. Harris et
training in helping skills but few scien- al., 2014), few methods are ethically appro-
tifically based, paraprofessional-level priate for the undergraduate level (Ivey et
training models are available. Goal Four al., 2016) and even fewer integrate theo-
of the American Psychological Association retical and empirically based intervention
(APA, 2013) Guidelines for the Undergrad- (Hill, 2014). Training models that appro-
uate Psychology Major sets the expectation priately address basic microskills for under-
that undergraduates be trained not only graduates are included in books such as
to understand but also apply psychological Essentials of Intentional Interviewing (Ivey et
principles. This guideline requires that al., 2016), Helping Skills (Hill, 2014), and
undergraduates develop knowledge as well The Skilled Helper (Egan, 2014). These books
as active skill building, which can be far more are generally targeted to novice profes-
beneficial to students than passive learning sional clinicians, although they note that
alone (Lave & Wegner, 1991). This goal the microskills training is also appropriate
includes a wide variety of applied competen- for paraprofessional helpers. Intended as a
cies commonly addressed in undergraduate basic introduction aimed at clinical profes-
psychology courses such as writing and pres- sionals, these models lack specific training
entation skills (Goals 4.1 and 4.2; APA, 2007). for how paraprofessionals can systemati-
Also stipulated in Goal 4.3 is the ability to cally and appropriately apply these skills to
‘interact effectively with others’ using skills promote change. Furthermore, these models
such as listening, attending to and inter- provide a helpful introduction to microskills;
preting nonverbal cues, asking questions, however, observers have noted that they do
and making interpretations (APA, 2007). not go far enough for what helpers need to
These interaction skills are often referred to enact lasting change (Ridley et al., 2011).
as helping skills (Ivey et al., 2016). Helping With training models currently available as a
skills represent a common area of applied foundation, additional training is needed for
psychology that teaches students basic tech- ethical and effective helping.
niques of how to listen and talk to a person When interventions are introduced
in distress (Hill, 2014). specifically for an audience of undergraduate
Although several training models students, they are most often restricted to
promote more advanced counselling skill theoretical information about counselling
32 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017
Effectiveness of LifeRAFT undergraduate helping skills training model
models without a skills-based component in case management, human resources, and a
a ‘Theories of Counselling’ course. Course wide range of other helping professions after
syllabi with theoretical counselling instruc- graduation; however, they are provided little
tions are available from the Society for the preparation in practical strategies (Myers &
Teaching of Psychology (STP, 2007). As Dewall, 2015). LifeRAFT provides training
a result, students who pursue paraprofes- in practical strategies that are appropriate
sional helping fields – more than two thirds for non-clinicians and teaches students
of psychology undergraduates in both the appropriate ethical boundaries between
United States and the United Kingdom – professional and paraprofessional helping.
enter into their fields with little preparation In accordance with Ivey’s microskills
(Ball, 2016; Myers & Dewall, 2015). Recent approach (Ivey et al., 2016), the LifeRAFT
observers have noted that an approach inte- model asserts that paraprofessional helping
grating a broader model of competence with includes skills involved in gathering informa-
skills-based training is needed (Ridley et al., tion, basic problem solving, and situational
2011), and APA guidelines (2007) necessitate advice giving. Students are taught to refer
that training begins at the undergraduate clients to counselling for ongoing problems
level. In direct response to the requirements and more intensive/personal work. Thus,
set forth by APA’s Goal Four and the paucity LifeRAFT instructs students in practical strat-
of models available, Campbell (2013) created egies as well as ethical paraprofessional prac-
an undergraduate helping skills training tice.
model: Relief Through Actions, Feelings,
and Thoughts (LifeRAFT). Multitheoretical
LifeRAFT guides undergraduates in how to
LifeRAFT principles support someone in distress by choosing to
LifeRAFT is a new method to train under- focus either on the person’s actions, feelings,
graduates in theoretically and empirically or thoughts. In doing so, students gain an
derived applied psychology skills. LifeRAFT experiential understanding of three distinct
provides instruction on how to apply coun- counselling theories, which are presented as
selling theories and techniques in an intro- a guiding philosophy for each area of focus.
ductory format that is appropriate for The action focal area is intended to intro-
undergraduate students’ level of training duce behavioural therapy and is based on
and skill. This model was adapted from a Behavioural Activation Therapy (Martell et
graduate-level model called Key Strate- al., 2010), the feelings focal area draws from
gies Training for Individual Psychotherapy Emotion-Focused Therapy (Greenberg,
(KST-IP; Harris et al., 2014) in order to 2002; Greenberg & Watson, 2005), and the
teach helping skills appropriate for para- thoughts focal area introduces Cognitive
professionals with bachelor’s degrees. Therapy (Beck, 2011). Students are taught
LifeRAFT offers several unique training to work interactively with actions, feelings,
benefits including ethical appropriateness and thoughts to promote client exploration
for nonprofessional helping, a multitheo- and transformation.
retical basis, evidence-based techniques, and
instruction beyond microskills training. Evidence based
LifeRAFT demonstrates to undergraduates
Ethical appropriateness the importance of evidence-based practice,
LifeRAFT introduces undergraduate which has been identified as a vital consid-
students to methods of brief helping that eration for counselling technique (APA,
are suitable to their level of training. Bach- 2007). The model draws from three empiri-
elor’s level psychology students often enter cally supported psychotherapy treatments,
helping fields such as guidance counselling, and the effectiveness of the LifeRAFT model
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 33
Elizabeth L. Campbell, Kenzie Davidson & Spencer M. Davidson
itself continues to be studied in order to al., 2014). Although LifeRAFT follows a
further emphasise the importance of empiri- somewhat similar progression to KST-IP,
cally supported practice. alterations reflect adaptations more appro-
priate for a paraprofessional audience. For
Beyond microskills example, the KST-IP stages were simplified
Helping skills training typically begins and condensed to remove more advanced
with microskills training, which introduces psychotherapy interventions; LifeRAFT also
trainees to singular helper responses such includes information for the unique needs
as open questions, paraphrasing, and giving of undergraduates, such as referring a client
advice. Although microskills are effective to a professional. The following stages and
for teaching helpers what to say, researchers progression of LifeRAFT described in this
have noted that more training is needed section are similar to KST-IP but distinc-
to guide them in when and how to use tive for undergraduate-specific helping skills
microskills (Ridley et al., 2011). LifeRAFT training.
fills that need as a follow-up to basic micro-
skills training by providing a structured Stage 1: Join
method for using the microskills. LifeRAFT Following microskills training (Ivey et al.,
employs a ramp up approach where trainees 2016), trainees are taught to begin a helping
are instructed to use nondirective, active session by joining with the client through
listening skills first and progress as needed active listening. Beginning only with the
to influencing microskills throughout a microskills of attending, paraphrasing, and
helping interaction. reflection of feeling, trainees’ primary focus
is to communicate to the client that they
LifeRAFT model hear what he or she is saying, that they
LifeRAFT involves four primary stages: (a) clearly see his or her point of view, and
join, (b) refer, (c) survey, and (d) trans- they understand his or her world as the
form (see Figure 1). These stages are adap- client experiences it. The trainee learns to
tations from the graduate-level training help clients feel comfortable while inviting
model, Key Strategies Training for Indi- them to talk about their distress in more
vidual Psychotherapy (KST-IP; Harris et detail.
Figure 1: LifeRAFT Model Components.
34 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017
Effectiveness of LifeRAFT undergraduate helping skills training model
Stage 2: Refer skills to identify effective actions and reward
The second stage involves consideration progress. Trainees are taught to address
for referral to a professional. Trainees are actions with their clients when the concern
instructed to use open and closed questions they present involves stopping unwanted
to ascertain whether the distress is appro- behaviours, meeting needs, and attaining
priate for the trainees’ level of helping goals.
skills competence, a scope which includes
nonlethal, immediate concerns that benefit Feelings
from general support. Issues that benefit The feelings focal area draws from Emotion-
from professional monitoring and treatment Focused Therapy (Greenberg, 2002; Green-
should be referred; these include threat of berg & Watson, 2005). It uses emotion-based
harm to self or others, abuse, substance use, skills to explore and express adaptive
and mental illness. Trainees are taught how emotions. Trainees are instructed to address
to remain calm, to use microskills to identify feelings with their clients when the concerns
an appropriate professional, and to facilitate involve emotional catharsis and expres-
connecting the client with that professional sion, emotional congruence, and regulating
when needed. or expanding the range and intensity of
emotional expression.
Stage 3: Survey
The third stage of LifeRAFT is surveying for Thoughts
actions, feelings, and thoughts. Utilizing the The thoughts focal area is based on Cogni-
microskills of active listening and questions, tive Therapy (Beck, 2011). It employs cogni-
trainees are taught to identify the client’s tive skills to detect errors in thinking and
primary concern and the interplay of behav- form more accurate thoughts. Trainees are
iours, emotions, and cognitions with the instructed to address thoughts with their
presenting problem. Only one area is chosen clients when their concerns involve devel-
as the area of focus due to the ease and oping rational beliefs based on objective
simplicity of focusing on one facet as well as evidence and motivated thinking that serves
the justification from underlying theories. a useful function.
Each of the included theories asserts that the
presenting issue can be addressed by focusing Stage 4: Transform
on one facet of the presenting issue: the The fourth step is transformation through
behavioural, cognitive, or emotional compo- the previously chosen focal area of actions,
nent. The expectation is that improvements feelings, or thoughts. Within the chosen
in one area will lead to resolution in the area, the trainee works with the client
other two areas. For example, engaging in through four strategies, also called interven-
more functional thinking is expected to tion processes (see Table 1). The four strate-
result in more adaptive feelings and effective gies are similar to each focal area and follow
actions. Based on the client’s ability, comfort, the same sequence.
and interest in discussing each area and
the trainee’s discernment of the appropriate Focusing
course, the trainee chooses a focal area – The first strategy involves focusing. Using
actions, feelings, or thoughts – to pursue a the microskills ramp up approach, trainees
resolution to the concern. have used attending, paraphrasing, reflec-
tion of feeling, and questions up to this
Actions point in the helping interaction and now
The action focal area is based on Behav- add focusing to encourage clients to talk
ioural Activation Therapy (Martell et  al., specifically about how the chosen focal area
2010). An actions approach uses behavioural impacts their concern. For example, a client
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 35
Elizabeth L. Campbell, Kenzie Davidson & Spencer M. Davidson
Table 1: LifeRAFT transformation phase.
Intervention processes Actions strategies Feelings strategies Thoughts strategies
Focus A-1. Focus on actions and F-1. Focus on feelings and T-1. Focus on thoughts
their impact their impact and their impact
Identify A-2. Identify ineffective F-2. Identify maladaptive T-2. Identify
actions feelings dysfunctional thoughts
Experiment A-3. Experiment with F-3. Experiment with T-3. Experiment with
ineffective vs. effective maladaptive vs. adaptive dysfunctional vs.
actions feelings functional thoughts
Generate A-4. Generate effective F-4. Generate adaptive T-4. Generate functional
actions feelings thoughts
may talk about an argument with his or her guiding the client in thinking through the
roommate. Applying an actions approach, a ineffective results of actions, such as avoid-
trainee might ask his or her client to discuss ance and gossip, and the effective results
what actions he or she has taken since the of other actions such as apologising and
argument. Using a feelings approach, a resolving the dispute.
trainee might instead ask the client how he
or she feels about the argument. Generate
The fourth and final strategy involves gener-
Identify ating a helpful and healthy resolution.
The second strategy involves identifying Trainees add the use of remaining micro-
problems in the given focal area that are skills, including interpretation and direc-
holding the client back from resolving tives, to motivate their clients toward a new
the presenting issue. Depending on the perspective and a healthier direction in an
chosen focal area, this may be conceptu- effort to resolve the presenting issue. This
alised as ineffective actions, maladaptive most notably involves plans to engage in
feelings, or dysfunctional thoughts. Using nonproblematic choices identified previously,
the microskills ramp up approach, trainees including effective actions, adaptive feelings,
are instructed to add psychoeducation and and functional thoughts. With the actions
logical consequences to help guide the approach example for roommate conflict,
client in identifying his or her stuck points. the trainee might guide the client in viewing
For instance, a client might identify that his or her ongoing distress as a sign that he
ineffective actions such as avoidance and or she needs to discontinue avoidance and
gossip are worsening the situation after an self-shaming behaviours and to make plans to
argument with a roommate. approach his or her roommate in an attempt
to move toward reconciliation.
Experiment
The third strategy involves experimenting Hypotheses
with problematic versus nonproblematic This study examined the effectiveness of the
actions, feelings, and thoughts. Trainees LifeRAFT model as a supplement to the
add the use of more microskills, including microskills training approach (Ivey et al.,
feedback and confrontation, to guide clients 2016) for training undergraduate students
in a pro/con-style evaluation of problem- in supportive counselling skills. We sought
atic choices as opposed to nonproblematic to answer the question, is the LifeRAFT
choices. In the example of roommate conflict supportive counselling model an effective
using an actions approach, this would involve training method for undergraduate helpers?
36 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017
Effectiveness of LifeRAFT undergraduate helping skills training model
Using a pre-post design, we hypothesised and that was appropriate for the coun-
that LifeRAFT training would demonstrate sellor’s level of training. The counsellor
significant improvements in helping-skills attempted to address the client’s distress
effectiveness compared to no training and by applying the skills and methods learned
microskills training from the perspective in class.
of the counsellor trainee, the client, and a Research participants were the desig-
trained observer. Thus, we developed three nated helpers in the role-playing scenarios.
hypotheses: They conducted three videotaped role-
1. Clients will report higher effective- playing sessions throughout the course: (a)
ness ratings for LifeRAFT role-playing a natural skills interview at the beginning of
scenarios, more than those for untrained the course prior to any training, (b) a micro-
and microskills-trained scenarios. skills interview after microskills training
2. Counsellors will report the highest levels but before LifeRAFT training, and (c) a
of effectiveness for LifeRAFT-trained LifeRAFT interview at the end of the course
helping scenarios. and after LifeRAFT training. After each of
3. Trained LifeRAFT observers will report the three role-playing sessions, the coun-
the highest levels of effectiveness for sellor completed the Counsellor Rating Form
LifeRAFT-trained helping scenarios. and the client completed the Client Rating
Form, as described in Materials below. A
Method third-person trained in LifeRAFT completed
Participants the LifeRAFT Observer Rating Form for
LifeRAFT was created to be accessible to each videotaped role-playing session.
paraprofessionals and intended specifically
for U.S. undergraduate psychology students. Materials
As such, a convenience sample of 18 senior- Client Rating Form
level psychology students was used for the The Client Rating Form represented the
study. Participants self-enrolled in an upper- client’s perception of the effectiveness of the
division undergraduate psychology elective helping session. This construct was assessed
course at a small Christian liberal arts univer- using the Client Feedback Form (CFF; Ivey
sity in the Northwest. Participants included et al., 2016). The CFF was created to use
16 female and two male college students, with Ivey and colleagues’ (2016) microskills
ranging in age from 20 to 23, with a mean training from Essentials of Intentional Inter-
age of 21.4 (SD = 0.68). viewing. The CFF consists of eight items, such
as ‘the session helped you understand the
Procedure issue, opportunity, or problem more fully’
Data were collected throughout an upper- and ‘…you felt heard’. Each item used a
division undergraduate psychology elec- 7-point response scale that ranged from 1
tive course. The first half of the 15-week (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). An
class was devoted to microskills training, overall client-rating score was calculated as an
and the second half was for LifeRAFT average of the eight item responses. Higher
training. During both sections of the class, scores indicated greater client perceptions
students learned skills and practiced them of session effectiveness and lower scores indi-
in role-playing activities during class and cated lesser session effectiveness. Reliability
conducted additional role-playing practice and validity information for the CFF is not
outside of class. Role-plays ranged from 10 yet available.
to 30 min in length. One student was desig-
nated the ‘counsellor’ and the other the Counsellor Rating Form
‘client’; the client discussed a real or facti- The Counsellor Rating Form represented
tious issue that was causing them distress the counsellor’s perception of his or her
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 37
Elizabeth L. Campbell, Kenzie Davidson & Spencer M. Davidson
effectiveness at using microskills in the observer, who was not aware of the counsel-
helping session. This construct was assessed lors’ level of training, was instructed to watch
using an adapted version of the Microskills the counsellors’ videotaped role-playing
Interview Analysis Form (MIAF; Ivey et al., session and to rate their effectiveness using
2016). The MIAF was created to use with Ivey each LifeRAFT strategy. Each strategy used a
and colleagues’ (2016) microskills training 7-point response scale ranging from 1 (poor)
from Essentials of Intentional Interviewing. to 7 (excellent). An effectiveness rating was
The adapted MIAF lists 16 microskills: not given for unutilised strategies. An overall
encouraging, paraphrasing, summarisa- observer rating score was calculated as an
tion, reflecting feelings, open questions, average of the effectiveness scores of the
closed questions, confrontations, reflecting four item responses; any missing scores were
meaning, interpretation, reframing, self- removed. Higher scores indicated greater
disclosure, feedback, logical consequences, observer perceptions of session effective-
information, psychoeducation, and direc- ness and lower scores indicated lesser session
tives. Counsellors were instructed to watch effectiveness. The LORF revealed high inter-
their videotaped role-playing sessions and rater reliability (ICC = 0.83) for the role-
rate their effectiveness using each micro- playing helping sessions (Gary et al., 2014).
skill. Each microskill was measured using The LORF has a low number of items and has
a 7-point response scale ranging from not been subject to validation studies; there-
1 (poor) to 7 (excellent). An effectiveness fore, validity information is not available.
rating was not given for unutilised micro-
skills. An overall counsellor rating score was Results
calculated as an average of the effective- Effectiveness ratings were compiled for
ness scores of the 16 item responses; any the client, counsellor, and observer for
missing scores were removed. Higher scores role-playing scenario conditions after the
indicated greater counsellor perceptions of counsellor received no training, microskills
session effectiveness and lower scores indi- training, and LifeRAFT training. The means
cated lesser session effectiveness. Reliability and standard deviations for the client, coun-
and validity information for the adapted sellor, and observer ratings are presented
version of the Counsellor Rating Form is in Table 2. Mean client effectiveness ratings
not yet available. ranged from 5.25 to 6.09 on a possible 1–7
scale, indicating that clients generally agreed
Observer Rating Form that all role-playing scenarios were effec-
The Observer Rating Form represented a tive. Mean counsellor effectiveness ratings
trained third-person observer’s perceptions ranged from 3.26 to 5.15 on a possible 1–7
of the effectiveness of the helping session. scale, indicating that counsellors scored all
Observers included the instructor and two role-playing scenarios as slightly less than
students previously trained in the LifeRAFT satisfactory to more than satisfactory. Mean
model. The three observers reached a observer effectiveness ratings ranged from
consensus for each helping session’s score. 1.19 to 4.44 on a possible 1–7 scale, indi-
The instructor was not a blind observer; cating that observers scored all role-playing
however, the two students were blind to scenarios as poor to slightly more than satis-
the client’s level of training. This construct factory.
was assessed using the LifeRAFT Observer We analysed our hypotheses using
Rating Form (LORF; Campbell, 2012). The one-way repeated measures analyses of vari-
LORF consists of four items; each item ance (ANOVA). The first hypothesis stated
represents one of the four LifeRAFT trans- that clients would report higher effectiveness
formation strategies: focusing, identifying, ratings for LifeRAFT-trained role-playing
experimenting, and generating. A trained scenarios, higher than the untrained and
38 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017
Effectiveness of LifeRAFT undergraduate helping skills training model
Table 2: Means and standard deviations
to the counsellor’s level of training, F(2,
for effectiveness ratings.
36) = 42.56, p < 0.01, η2 = 0.703. Post hoc tests
using the Bonferroni correction revealed
Effectiveness rating M SD
that no training received the lowest coun-
Client
sellor ratings (M = 3.26, SD = 1.01), followed
No training 5.25 0.89 by microskills training (M = 4.63, SD = 0.78),
Microskills training 5.90 0.55 and LifeRAFT training received the highest
counsellor ratings (M = 5.15, SD = 0.77), and
LifeRAFT training 6.09 0.66
all three training levels showed a statistically
Counsellor
significant difference (p < 0.01).
No training 3.26 1.10 The third and final hypothesis stated
Microskills training 4.63 0.78 that trained LifeRAFT observers would
report the highest levels of effectiveness
LifeRAFT training 5.15 0.77
for LifeRAFT-trained helping scenarios.
Observer
A one-way within-subjects ANOVA was
No training 1.19 0.82 conducted with the factor being the level of
Microskills training 1.48 0.46 training and the dependent variable being
observer effectiveness rating. The results for
LifeRAFT training 4.44 1.35
the ANOVA revealed a significant training
effect, indicating that observer ratings did
microskills-trained scenarios. We conducted vary according to the counsellor’s level
a one-way within-subjects ANOVA with of training, F(2, 30) = 65.55, p < 0.01,
the factor being the level of training (no η2 = 0.814. Post hoc tests using the Bonfer-
training, microskills training, or LifeRAFT roni correction revealed no statistically signif-
training) and the dependent variable being icant differences between observer ratings
client effectiveness rating. The results for for no training (M = 1.19, SD = 0.82) and
the ANOVA revealed a significant training microskills training (M = 1.48, SD = 0.46;
effect, indicating that client ratings did p = 0.58); however, LifeRAFT training was
vary according to the counsellor’s level higher than both (M = 1.48, SD = 1.35),
of training, F(2, 34) = 6.87, p = 0.003, which was a statistically significant differ-
ηp2 = 0.288. Post hoc tests using the Bonfer- ence (p < 0.01).
roni correction revealed that no training
received the lowest client ratings (M = 5.25, Discussion
SD = 0.89), followed by microskills training The purpose of this study was to examine
(M = 5.90, SD = 0.55), and LifeRAFT the effectiveness of the LifeRAFT model
training received the highest client ratings for training undergraduate students in
(M = 6.09, SD = 0.66). All three training supportive counselling skills. All three of
levels showed a statistically significant differ- the study’s hypotheses were supported:
ence (p < 0.01). Clients, counsellor trainees, and third-
Our second hypothesis stated that coun- person observers all gave significantly higher
sellors would report the highest levels of effectiveness ratings for LifeRAFT, higher
effectiveness for LifeRAFT-trained helping than for untrained and microskills-trained
scenarios. We conducted a one-way within- helping scenarios. These findings suggest
subjects ANOVA with the factor being the that the LifeRAFT supportive counselling
level of training and the dependent variable model is an effective method for training
being counsellor effectiveness rating. The paraprofessionals in helping skills.
results for the ANOVA revealed a significant In addition to demonstrating effec-
training effect, indicating that counsellor tiveness, findings for the third hypothesis
effectiveness ratings did vary according revealed that observers reported significantly
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 39
Elizabeth L. Campbell, Kenzie Davidson & Spencer M. Davidson
higher effectiveness ratings for LifeRAFT building in helping skills (Lave & Wegner,
helping role plays but reported no differ- 1991). LifeRAFT is also the first model of its
ence between untrained and microskills role kind that was created exclusively for under-
plays. These findings further suggest that graduate use and that integrates multitheo-
LifeRAFT is a useful supplement beyond the retical perspectives, utilises evidence-based
traditional microskills training approach. techniques, and instructs beyond microskill
Study findings were further reinforced by training. LifeRAFT has a great deal to offer
narrative reflections by the course instructor undergraduate psychology education.
and students about the value of the training
as part of the Helping Skills undergraduate Limitations
course. The instructor noted that as a result This study offers preliminary support for the
of LifeRAFT training, students seemed to use of LifeRAFT for training undergraduates
develop a richer understanding of counsel- in helping skills; however, the current study
ling process and theory through a skills-based had limitations that need to be addressed.
approach. It also seemed to inform their As an initial trial of the LifeRAFT model,
future career goals of pursuing the helping the current study lacked rigorous research
field in paraprofessional interactions or standards appropriate for randomised
as a professional career. Comments from controlled trials typically used to substantiate
students highlighted additional gains, such as the effectiveness of psychological interven-
increasing interpersonal and communication tions (Lachin, 1988). The sample size was
skills: ‘What I learned in the classroom was very small and not representative with only
applicable to everyday life’; ‘It has changed 18 participants, only two of which were men.
the way I approach situations around me The sample consisted of only one sequence
and has made me a better person’. Students of the program with one professor at one
also appeared to gain an appreciation for the university and represented a highly homo-
counselling field, such as demonstrated by geneous sample of all Caucasian, senior-level
the comment, ‘This class solidified and gave students. The narrow range of participants
me confidence in my ability to become a limits the generalisability of the results.
school counsellor’. Lastly, LifeRAFT training Another limitation of the study concerns
and the Helping Skills course may have also the psychometric properties of the effec-
helped students gain empathy for those in tiveness measures. Because the client, coun-
distress, as evidenced by the comment, ‘I sellor, and observer rating forms were not
love people more because of what I learned. I subject to rigorous validation studies, their
walked away from this class feeling as though reliability and validity remains in question.
I have truly had an education of mind and The Observer Rating Form in particular is
heart’. Future research should continue to brief, consisting of only four items, resulting
explore the many benefits of incorporating in further uncertainty about its validity.
LifeRAFT training in undergraduate courses. Without this data, it is difficult to ensure
The results of this study demonstrate that the findings actually represent robust
promise that LifeRAFT can uniquely fulfill and consistent confirmation of the LifeRAFT
the need in undergraduate psychology model’s effectiveness.
education for scientifically based parapro-
fessional-level training models. This study Future directions
demonstrates that LifeRAFT is an empiri- The LifeRAFT training model would benefit
cally validated helping skills training model. from continued research and use. The current
It addresses Goal 4 of the APA Guidelines for study represented an initial trial of the model
the Undergraduate Psychology Major (APA, that yielded promising results; however,
2007), which requires that undergraduates continued studies that comply with rigorous
develop knowledge as well as active skill randomised controlled trial procedures are
40 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017
Effectiveness of LifeRAFT undergraduate helping skills training model
needed (Lachin, 1988). Future studies should LifeRAFT) and the dependent variable being
utilize measures with demonstrated reliability the effectiveness rating. Research questions
and validity or should examine the psycho- could be expanded to include potential inter-
metric properties of existing measures to actions between independent variables, which
support that they are reliable and valid meas- might shed light on useful nuances not yet
ures of effectiveness. Replication of this study understood.
with different populations and more partici- LifeRAFT is new helping skills training
pants would also be beneficial to increase model that shows promising initial results.
the generalisability of the results. A larger Future practice and research with this model
sample size would also increase possibilities is critical to provide students with the highest
for more complex statistical analyses. This level of helping skills training our growing
study required multiple one-way ANOVAs to field has to offer.
investigate changes in client, counsellor, and
observer ratings. With a larger sample size, a The authors
3 × 3 factorial ANOVA design would become Elizabeth L. Campbell, Kenzie Davidson &
possible with the independent variables being Spencer M. Davidson
perspective (client, counsellor, or observer) Whitworth University, Washington, USA.
and training level (untrained, microskills, and
References
American Psychological Association (2013). APA Harris, J.E., Kelly, L.J., Campbell, E.L. & Hammond,
guidelines for the undergraduate psychology major. E.S. (2014). Key strategies training: An introduc-
Washington, DC: Author. Retrieved from: http:// tion to multitheoretical practice. Journal of Psycho-
www.apa.org/ed/precollege/about/psymajor- therapy Integration, 24(2), 138–152. doi: 10.1037/
guidelines.pdf a0037056
Ball, C. (2016). Employment review. What do graduates Hill, C.E. (2014). Helping skills: Facilitating exploration,
do? Retrieved from https://www.hecsu.ac.uk/ insight, and action (4th edn). Washington DC:
current_projects_what_do_graduates_do.htm American Psychological Association.
Beck, J.S. (2011). Cognitive behavior therapy: Basics and Ivey, A.E., Ivey, M.B. & Zalaquett, C.P. (2016).
beyond (2nd edn). New York, NY: Guilford Press. Essentials of intentional interviewing: Counseling
Campbell, E.L. (2012). LifeRAFT Observer Rating in a multicultural world (3rd edn). Boston, MA:
Form. Unpublished instrument. Retrieved from Cengage Learning.
author. Lachin, J.M. (1988). Randomization in clinical trials:
Campbell, E.L. (2013). Key introductory strategies Conclusions and recommendations. Controlled
training: Training paraprofessionals in basic helping Clinical Trials, 9(4), 365–374.
skills. Symposium Conducted at the Annual Meeting Lave, J. & Wegner, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legiti-
of the Western Psychological Association, Reno, NV. mate peripheral participation. Cambridge, England:
Egan, G. (2014). The skilled helper: A problem-manage- Cambridge University Press.
ment and opportunity development approach to helping Martell, C.R., Dimidjian, S., Herman-Dunn, R. &
(10th edn). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Lewinsohn, P.M. (2010). Behavioral activation for
Gary, K., Campbell, E.L., Mendoza, R., Fenger, depression: A clinician’s guide. New York, NY: Guil-
E.E. & Sullivan, R. (2014). Helping skills assess- ford Press.
ment: Inter-rater reliability of the LifeRAFT model. Myers, D.G. & Dewall, C.N. (2015). Appendix A:
Poster presented at the Annual Meeting of the Psychology at work. In Psychology (11th edn,
Spokane Intercollegiate Research Conference, pp.A1). New York: Worth Publishers.
Spokane, WA. Ridley, C.R., Mollen, D. & Kelly, S.M. (2011). Beyond
Greenberg, L.S. (2002). Emotion-focused therapy: microskills: Toward a model of counseling
Coaching clients to work through feelings. Wash- competence. The Counseling Psychologist, 39(6),
ington, DC: American Psychological Association. 825–864.
Greenberg, L.S. & Watson, J.C. (2005). Emotion- Society for the Teaching of Psychology (2007).
focused therapy for depression. Washington, DC: Project syllabus: Clinical. Retrieved from http://
American Psychological Association. teachpsych.org/otrp/syllabi/index.php
Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 2, 2017 41