ERIC EJ1158281: Using an Ethical Decision-Making Model to Address Ethical Dilemmas in School Counseling

2017·0.14 MB·English

by  ERIC

Using an Ethical Decision-Making Model to Address
Ethical Dilemmas in School Counseling
Timothy Brown, Stephen A. Armstrong, Samuel Bore, and Chris Simpson
Texas A&M University-Commerce
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Abstract
School counselors frequently face ethical dilemmas. These dilemmas often involve
relationships with principals, parents, and other stakeholders. School counselors may
confront complex ethical issues involving confidentiality, student safety, parental rights,
and social media. The American School Counselor Association recommends following
an ethical decision-making model when dealing with complex ethical issues. An
explanatory case study is provided along with sample dilemmas to illustrate how an
ethical decision-making model might be used within the school setting.
Keywords: school counseling, ethics, ethical decision-making, ethical dilemmas
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Using an Ethical Decision-Making Model to Address
Ethical Dilemmas in School Counseling
Ethics refer to moral and value-based decision making. Professional ethics
extend beyond personal values and include behaviors deemed as good by the
profession. These values have been codified and accepted by the counseling
profession. Ethical codes were developed out of a need for counselors to morally solve
practical problems in a consistent manner (Freeman, Engels, & Altekruse, 2004).
Professional counselors, including school counselors, are required to adhere to an
ethical code (American Counseling Association [ACA], 2014). This article focuses on
ethical dilemmas that can arise for school counselors and approaches school
counselors can take to solving these ethical dilemmas.
In general, most ethical problems are not difficult for school counselors to resolve.
However, complex ethical dilemmas can occur when the solution appears ambiguous.
When counselors cannot find a clear decision, they will often review an ethical code
(Freeman et al., 2004); however, knowing the ethical codes differs greatly from applying
the ethical code (Lambie, Ieva, Mullen, & Hayes, 2011). At times ethical principles can
be at odds with each other. When this happens, a complex ethical dilemma results
(Freeman et al., 2004; Lazovsky, 2008). When faced with a complex ethical dilemma,
school counselors may desire to use a simple solution (Foster & Black, 2007) such as
only trusting their value judgment (Kitchener, 1984). They may also turn to the code of
ethics for answers (Freeman et al., 2004). However, a more in-depth process is often
needed.
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The American Counseling Association published the most recent edition of its
Code of Ethics in 2014. The American School Counselor Association (ASCA) also
published its most recent edition of the Ethical Code for School Counselors, an ethical
code directly addressing many of the dilemmas unique to school counselors, in 2016.
Both codes were designed to help counselors make decisions that will protect both the
students they serve and the profession (Schmidt, 2008).
Ethical decisions can be difficult for school counselors because they are
constantly seeking to minimize any harm while maximizing benefit to students (ACA,
2014; Lambie et al., 2011). School counselors often approach these ethical decisions
with a personal sense of morality and values. These personal values provide the basis
for the frequent small ethical decisions a school counselor must make (Levitt, Farry, &
Mazzarella, 2015).
The way school counselors make ethical decisions may vary by their level of
professional development (Foster & Black, 2007). As school counselors gain experience,
they may rely more on intuition or instinct than on a more conscious process of ethical
decision making (Levitt et al., 2015). At times school counselors may also consult a
variety of sources such as colleagues, ethical codes, and school district policy when
making decisions (Lambie et al., 2011).
Ethical Decision-Making Model
When faced with an ethical dilemma, school counselors may refer to ethical
codes for guidance (Bodenhorn, 2006; Freeman et al., 2004). Because school
counselors regularly face ethical dilemmas (Bodenhorn, 2006; Hicks et al., 2014; Moyer,
Sullivan & Growcock, 2012), they need a methodology for confronting these dilemmas.
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The Ethical Standards for School Counselors states a school counselor should use an
ethical decision-making model when faced with an ethical dilemma (ASCA, 2016).
School counselors should also document the steps of their decision-making (ASCA;
Hicks et al., 2014).
Over 30 ethical decision-making models are available to school counselors
(Cottone & Clause, 2000). These models differ in emphasis. Some focus on
multicultural considerations or community while others focus on counselor education or
school counseling (Levitt et al., 2015). While ethical models are prevalent in the
literature (Remley & Herlihy, 2016), there is no clear criteria for selecting one model
over another (Cottone & Claus, 2000). However, ASCA (2016) listed the Solutions to
Ethical Problems in Schools (STEPS) as an example of a model designed for school
counselors in the Ethical Code for School Counselors. This model was created by
Carolyn Stone (2013). The model contains nine steps:
1. Define the problem emotionally and intellectually.
2. Apply the ASCA and ACA ethical codes and the law.
3. Consider the students’ chronological and developmental levels.
4. Consider the setting, parental rights, and minors’ rights.
5. Apply the moral principles.
6. Determine your potential courses of action and their consequences.
7. Evaluate the selected action.
8. Consult.
9. Implement the course of action.
This model provides school counselors with a clear enumerated approach to
ethical decision-making. Using a concrete approach may provide comfort to some
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counselors when faced with complex ethical dilemmas. This model will be used to
address the explanatory case and ethical dilemmas that school counselors might
encounter.
Case of Ms. Hannah
Ms. Hannah is a first year school counselor at suburban elementary school in the
southern United States. She holds a master’s in school counseling and has completed a
one year internship prior to accepting the position. During her master’s degree, Ms.
Hannah completed a course in counseling ethics. This course required Ms. Hannah to
read both the ACA (2014) Code of Ethics and the ASCA (2016) Ethical Code for School
Counselors. At the outset of her first year, Ms. Hannah felt confident she would be
competent to practice ethically; however, Ms. Hannah encountered several ethical
dilemmas soon after beginning at her new school. These ethical dilemmas are listed at
the end of each section to illustrate possible ethical concerns. Following each dilemma
an example of how to use the STEPS ethical decision-making model is provided.
Ethical Dilemmas Related to Confidentiality
The law does not specify the rights of minors in regards to confidentiality
(Wehrman, Williams, Field, & Schroeder, 2010). This may be one of the reasons
confidentiality is the most frequently considered ethical dilemma (Bodenhorn, 2006).
While the ACA (2014) Code of Ethics and ASCA (2016) Ethical Code for School
Counselors offer specific guidelines on confidentiality, ethical problems arise when
school counselors are conflicted between maintaining confidentiality and helping the
student in other ways. Ethical dilemmas can also arise when a faculty member or
administrator requests confidential information (Bodenhorn). Lazovsky (2008) noted that
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serving the student and maintaining confidentiality can at times conflict. Additionally,
some administrators require their school counselors to disclose infractions of the rules
(O’Connell, 2012).
School counselors typically break confidentiality for justifiable reasons (Lazovsky,
2008). However, professional development levels of school counselors play a role in
their choice of when to break confidentiality. Newly certified school counselors
experience an internal conflict when requests from colleagues and administrators
conflict with their ethical training. More experienced school counselors may become
more lax over time about maintaining student confidentiality (Trice-Black, Kiper Riechel,
& Shillingford, 2013)
School counselors typically provide some type of informed consent about
confidentiality; however, not all school counselors maintain confidentiality to the same
degree. School counselors may also differentiate between academic information and
personal information when considering the limits to confidentiality (Lehr, Lehr, &
Sumarah, 2007).
Limits to confidentiality can be discussed with students and faculty at the
beginning of the school year (Froeschle & Crews, 2010). Students should be informed
about limits to confidentiality prior to their initial counseling sessions (ASCA, 2016; Keim
& Cobia, 2010). The school counselor should take into account student competency
when requesting any type of informed consent (ACA, 2014; ASCA, 2016, Lehr et al.,
2007).
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Ms. Hannah’s Dilemma
A fourth grade girl named Julie was referred to Ms. Hannah. During the course of
their visit, Julie tells Ms. Hannah her dad is in jail. Julie also says they have been living
in hotels or in a friend’s living room when her mom cannot afford a hotel. Julie begs Ms.
Hannah not to tell anyone because she will get in trouble if her mom finds out she told.
Ms. Hannah has met the mom, and believes mom would be receptive to help. Ms.
Hannah also has a phone number for a local charity that helps with short-term housing.
Should Ms. Hannah call mom to help Julie and her family? Does she risk getting Julie in
trouble in an attempt to help?
To approach this problem using the STEPS ethical decision-making model, Ms.
Hannah began by:
1. Defining the problem both emotionally and intellectually. Emotionally, Ms.
Hannah has felt worried about Julie having a place to sleep. She also worried
the relationship with Julie could be damaged if she violated confidentiality with
the student who clearly needed support. Intellectually, she knew Julie’s mom
and suspected the mom would be receptive to help. She also hoped the mom
would not be angry with Julie for telling this family secret.
2. Ms. Hannah then reviewed the ACA (2014) Code of Ethics and the ASCA
(2016) Ethical Standards for School Counselors. She paid particular attention
to A.2.e in the ASCA ethical standards. This stated a school counselor keeps
all information confidential unless there is serious or foreseeable harm. It also
stated a school counselor should seek consultation when unclear about what
constitutes serious and foreseeable harm. Ms. Hannah was unsure if
homelessness falls into this category.
3. Ms. Hannah then considered the chronological and developmental levels of
the student. She noted that the student may not understand the seriousness
of homelessness compared to the seriousness of getting in trouble with mom.
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4. Next, she considered the setting, parental rights and minor’s rights. She
believed Julie has the right to confidentiality.
5. Ms. Hannah then applied moral principles. She believed strongly in being
beneficent. This driving ethical principle made Ms. Hannah want to share the
information. She was also concerned about nonmaleficence. She did not want
to cause harm to Julie by her interference or harm the relationship she has
formed with Julie.
6. Ms. Hannah determined a couple of potential courses of action and their
consequences. If she helped the family find housing, it could benefit the
family greatly but hurt the relationship she has with Julie. If she did not help
the family find housing, the family would continue to suffer unnecessarily, but
her relationship with Julie may remain intact. Ms. Hannah also noted Julie’s
absences from school had become more frequent, so there were academic
consequences as well.
7. Ms. Hannah decided to tell Julie’s mom about the housing. As she evaluated
the selected course of action, she believed the benefits outweighed the harm.
8. Before taking action, Ms. Hannah consulted with another school counselor
who had been assigned as her first year mentor. Her mentor suggested Ms.
Hannah visit with Julie and discuss the problem with her first, illustrating the
two options, before talking to mom. By doing this, she may preserve the
relationships because Julie will know why Ms. Hannah was speaking to mom.
Julie was an articulate and intelligent girl. Ms. Hannah believed she would be
able to understand the dilemma.
9. Ms. Hannah visited with Julie. Julie’s anxiety had already calmed down since
the last visit. Julie listened to the dilemma and consented to telling mom
about the community aid. Ms. Hannah then visited with mom and connected
her with the resource.
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Ethical Dilemmas Related to Student Safety
Suicidal ideations and self-injurious behavior are common among teens
(Pawłowska, Potembska, Zygo, & Olajossy, 2015). School counselors often address
these issues, and the majority of school counselors feel competent to work with
students who self-injure (Roberts-Dobie & Donatelle, 2007). When a school counselor
works with a student who is self-injuring, they must be able to assess the level of risk to
the student (Bernes & Bardick, 2007; Hall, Rushing, & Beale, 2010). However, formal
risk assessments should be used with professional discretion and caution (ASCA, 2016).
School counselors must also inform parents and/or authorities if the school counselor
believes if a student is a danger to herself or others (ASCA, 2016; Huey, 2011).
Some school counselors may breach confidentiality more often in cases where
signs of self-injury were visible. A school policy that defines when school counselors
must break confidentiality in cases of student harm may aid the school counselor with
knowing when to break confidentiality (Moyer, Sullivan, & Growcock, 2012). Many
administrators have such policies in place at their schools (O’Connell, 2012).
Parents must be contacted in all cases of foreseeable harm, including threats to
self or others (Hall et al., 2010); however, it may be helpful to provide students with a
choice of how to communicate the situation with their parents (Froeschle & Crews,
2010). School counselors seek to provide students with autonomy whenever possible
(ASCA, 2016).
Many students who are in need of mental health care are not receiving these
services. Leaving these needs untreated can impact the student’s academic success,
social interactions, and escalate into additional struggles involving student safety and