ERIC EJ1158072: Gender Bias within the Superintendency: A Comparative Study

2017·0.38 MB·English

by  ERIC

Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
Gender Bias Within the Superintendency:
A Comparative Study
Carolyn Bernal Nadezhda Monosov Amy Stencler
California State University, Channel Islands & California State University, Channel Islands & California State University, Channel Islands &
California State University, Fresno California State University, Fresno California State University, Fresno

Ashley Lajoie Alison Raigoza Nancy Akhavan
California State University, Channel Islands & California State University, Channel Islands & California State University, Fresno
California State University, Fresno California State University, Fresno

ABSTRACT: Current research reveals a large per- McCord, Peterson, Young, & Ellerson, 2010). This
centage of teaching positions and administrative ser- number was a substantial improvement since the last
vices credentials are held by women, although histori- time it was measured in 2000, when only 13.2% were
cally, men dominate the superintendent role. Specifi- women. Although women comprise the majority of
cally in the area of women in the superintendency, a classified staff and teachers in the P-12 education sys-
discrepancy exists between men and women in re- tem (in 2011-2012, 76% of public school teachers were
cruitment practices, types of barriers and challenges, female as indicated by a 2011-2012 report by the U.S.
and the length of time one stays in the superintendent Department of Education), males held just under 80%
position. This study examines the superintendent role of the superintendent positions. A few recent studies
and the perceived leadership qualities necessary, bar- on women superintendents (Derrington & Sharatt,
riers, challenges and opportunities, as well as the ca- 2009; Muñoz, Pankake, Murakami, & Simonsson,
reer pathway taken by those in the superintendent 2014; Sperandio & Devdas, 2014) describe the current
role. With a mixed-method design, the study reflects issues female leaders are facing, which includes per-
upon responses from six superintendents, three wom- sonal issues such as marriage, children, and relocation
en and three men, using semi-structured interview as well as professional challenges such as opportunity
questions and data collected with Bolman and Deal’s and gender bias. Obtaining the position of the super-
(1990) Leadership Orientations (Self) Instrument and a intendent is challenging enough without having to
demographics survey. A theoretical framework of navigate external factors that women are currently
management and leadership styles was utilized to subject to enduring. Women are often typecast as
analyze the data for themes relating to the three re- teachers or other personnel, making the pressure to
search questions. The findings generally indicated exceed that first impression even greater (Muñoz et
women superintendents perceive they are expected to al., 2014).
act and behave differently to succeed in the role, while
Barriers
men are more at ease with making decisions and lead-
ing others. Gender biases were found to be prevalent There are certain unwritten rules for women for
for women, as the role of parenthood was the biggest obtaining a superintendent position. Tallerico (2000)
barrier when considering their career pathway. This explained, “These unwritten rules involve
was not found to be a barrier for men. headhunters’ and school board members’ (a) defining
quality in terms of hierarchies of particular job titles,

(b) stereotyping by gender, (c) complacency about
Keywords: Professional learning, induction, inquiry,
acting affirmatively, and (d) hypervaluing feelings of
experiential learning, Common Core.
comfort and interpersonal chemistry with the success-
ful candidate” (p. 37). Understanding the potential
A
ccording to the American Association of School issues, both known and unknown, can help break
Administrators, in 2010, approximately 24.1% of down barriers to ensure that every candidate, female
American superintendents were female (Kowalski,
Volume 2 ▪ Number 1 ▪ Summer 2017 The Journal of School Administration Research and Development 42
Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
or male, has an equitable opportunity to become a are viewed differently based on the positions the can-
superintendent. didate has previously held. This impacts women and
people of color because these two groups are more
The underrepresentation of women in the superin-
likely to hold principalships at an elementary school
tendency and the possible reasons attributed with it
than at the secondary levels (Tallerico, 2000). Cultural
requires additional research. Studies have shown that
norms also play a role and prejudicial gender stereo-
it is not the lack of training or experience necessary to
typing does exist. Specifically females are often as-
succeed in the position that has led to the underrepre-
sumed to lack prior knowledge about particular issues
sentation of female superintendents, but rather socie-
related to the superintendency. Male candidates are
tal norms and beliefs regarding leadership,
expected to understand appropriate disciplinary ac-
(Shakeshaft, 1989), school board expectations
tions, budgeting, and other non-instructional technical
(Tallerico, 2000) and issues with the overall search and
abilities, while the competencies of women are ques-
selection processes. Selection process issues include
tioned. If a woman does make it as a finalist, the
school boards not considering female candidates for
school board often questions whether they need to
positions, lack of mobility, and perceptions held by
pay her as much as a male contender (Tallerico, 2000).
school board members that women are unqualified for
The third category inquires about how a school board
the responsibilities of the position (Glass, Bjork, &
makes selection decisions. Many of the participants
Brunner, 2000).
involved in the interviews described the chemistry or
One barrier women face as they move to the super- connection they feel with a candidate as crucial. Psy-
intendency is the attitudes of gatekeepers. In this con- chologically, humans are more likely to connect with
text, gatekeepers are defined as school board members others who are similar to them (Baltzell & Dentler,
who help to hire women superintendents and consult- 1983). This means that this ‘fit’ being assessed is more
ants working in superintendency searches who place than likely to push women and people of color out of
women among the top candidates for superintendent the position (Baltzell & Dentler, 1983 ).
positions (Chase & Bell, 1990). In a study by Chase
Breaking Barriers and Challenging Life Styles
and Bell (1990), the ideologies and discourse of indi-
vidual achievement and gender neutrality were exam- Derrington and Sharratt (2009) offered several sug-
ined by exploring the explanations and descriptions of gestions for overcoming the continuous struggles fe-
women’s actions and situations as told by the gate- male superintendents face. The strategies fall under
keepers. Little attention had been paid to gatekeepers’ four subcategories: resolve, balance, negotiate, and
experiences and perspectives in relation to women in decide. To cultivate resolve, individuals need to be
positions of power. The focus of studying gatekeep- clear about professional and personal goals, stick to
ers’ speech was on “how gatekeepers talk about wom- career goals and develop an action plan, and realize
en, that is, on the kinds of understandings about that sacrifice is necessary while determining limita-
women’s actions and situations that are produced by tions. In order to maintain balance, it is important for
gatekeepers’ speech” (Chase & Bell, 1990, p. 164). Re- women to take care of their health, seek the advice of
search supports the fact that there are qualified wom- women who have created balance, and accept assign-
en who enjoy the work and have the expertise to lead ments that allow family participation. Women may
systems who are actively seeking the superintendency also need to consider negotiating boundaries or ask
(Grogan & Brunner, 2005); however, the gatekeepers– for alternatives such as negotiating flexible time with
–school board members and search firms––are not their school board or compromising expectations with
hiring women at the same rate as men. the board before making strong decisions.
Another barrier involves headhunting, gender, and Life choices. Sperandio and Devdas (2014) dis-
color. Tallerico (2000) explored the process of filling cussed the idea that women seeking superintendent
the position of superintendency from a gatekeeping positions must consider life factors their male counter-
and career mobility theory while looking specifically parts may not face. Many women would not consider
at gender and color. The idea of head hunting ties relocating or committing to a long commute in order
into the gatekeeping theory because headhunters may to access a position that may further their career goals.
be able to personally control portions of the hiring In their study, 71 of the 109 respondents indicated
process early on (i.e., the initial paper screening). they considered their spouse and their career or cur-
They have the power to control who proceeds at vari- rent position as either important or very important
ous levels of the hiring process. There are three major when deciding whether to take a superintendent posi-
categories in this area of inquiry. First, although there tion. The respondents continued to handle much of
are guidelines on which a candidate is evaluated, they the domestic responsibility independently or with
Volume 2 ▪ Number 1 ▪ Summer 2017 The Journal of School Administration Research and Development 43
Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
very little help from their family or paid help. The tenure length ranged from five months to fourteen
findings indicate the responsibilities of a superinten- years, with females holding both the shortest and
dent and lifestyle preferences of women who are qual- longest tenure.
ified to take these positions are at odds, making it
Instrumentation
more difficult for women to obtain these positions.
This in turn makes it more challenging to close the Bolman and Deal’s (1990) Leadership Orientation
gender gap that exists in the position of superinten- (Self) Instrument (LOI), considered a valid and relia-
dent and the gender balance in educational decisions ble instrument, was used as the main instrument of
that are made within school districts. The problem the study. Proposed in 1984, the Bolman and Deal
becomes more complex due to the realization that the leadership model has been widely accepted in organi-
responsibilities of the superintendent are unlikely to zational theory and applied to various organizations
change, meaning women may continue to be faced across an extensive time period. Bolman and Deal’s
with these challenging decisions between career and (1990) model provides four specific frameworks:
home life. structural, human resource, political, and symbolic.
The four frameworks provide structure that leaders
Although many studies have looked at leadership
can employ to gain a better understanding of chal-
traits of superintendents, few have focused on gender
lenging situations. The authors believed reframing
biases that exist in this important leadership position.
offers leaders “a chance to get beyond constricted,
The current study used three research questions to
oversimplified views of leadership” and provides four
address this this gap in the literature:
distinct lenses through which each situation may be
1) What are the leadership qualities that a su- perceived (Bolman & Deal, 2013, p. 355).
perintendent needs to possess to have a suc-
According to Bolman and Deal (2013), the structur-
cessful tenure?
al leader acts as the architect of the organization, fo-
2) What strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, cusing mainly on “task, facts, and logic, rather than
and threats are experienced in the role of su- personal limitation or liability” (p. 325). The human
perintendent? resource leader is a catalyst, acting as a facilitator in
the organization to “advocate openness, caring, mutu-
3) What commonalities exist as it relates to the
ality, listening, coaching, participation, and empower-
career pathway towards becoming a superin-
ment” (Bolman & Deal, 2013, p. 360). The task of the
tendent?
political frame leader is to be an advocate who will
Methods “recognize major constituencies, develop ties to their
leadership, and manage conflict as productively as
Participants
possible” (Bolman & Deal, 2013, p. 329). Lastly, the
Six superintendents (n = 6), all from Southern Cali- symbolic frame encourages leaders to act as a prophet
fornia, participated in this study. Five participants with the task of inspiring workers. The authors pro-
were currently serving as superintendent and one was pose several distinct features of today’s leadership,
retired. Three participants were female and three noting that it is a multilateral, distributed activity that
were male. Participants ranged between 41 and 61 is contextual and situated in the exchange between the
years of age, with a male being the youngest and a leader and constituents. But far from simplistic, many
female being the oldest. Of the six participants, three individuals fall into a combination of the frames. The
reported being married (two females and one male), structural and human resource frames are related to
two reported being single (one female and one male), managerial effectiveness, while the political and sym-
and one reported being divorced (male). All partici- bolic frames are related to leadership effectiveness.
pants reported they had children, with no participant
Permission to use the LOI was obtained from the
having more than three. The age of their children
author prior to starting the data collection process.
ranged from 22 months to 39 years old, with a male
Although the LOI has three sections, only the first sec-
having the youngest child and a female having the
tion was used for analysis. This section consists of 32
oldest child. The participants served districts ranging
Likert scale items that allows individuals to assess
from 2,600 to 18,000 students, with a male leading the
their own leadership skills. The results generate four
smallest district and a female leading the largest dis-
scores for each participant––one for each of the four
trict. Five superintendents represented elementary
frames described above. A score of 32 or above or an
school districts (non-unified), while one represented a
average score above 4.0 indicates a preference for a
unified district that included high schools. All of the
frame. To obtain the frame frequency distribution,
participants held doctoral degrees. Superintendent
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Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
each superintendent’s scores for the frame were aver- Research Question 1: What are the leadership quali-
aged. Lastly, the entire group’s scores were averaged, ties that a superintendent needs to possess to have a
and the statistical results were distributed across the successful tenure?
four leadership frames.
Female Responses
Data Collection and Analysis
The responses of the female participants to the first
Data was collected using semi-structured inter- research question were analyzed and divided into
views and a survey using Bolman and Deal’s (1990) four themes: communication, relationships, vision, and
LOI. Each participant received a phone call or an overall female superintendent issues.
email and was invited to be interviewed. Upon agree-
Communication. Communication was discussed
ment, individual in-person interviews were set up
throughout all of the female interviews. The ability to
between the participant and at least two researchers to
communicate was examined in regards to organiza-
discuss the research questions presented in this study.
tional (i.e., the vision and mission, staff, faculty, etc.)
Participants were also asked to complete a short de-
and interpersonal needs. In addition, the other female
mographic survey prior to the LOI. Each interview
superintendents discussed spending much of their
was recorded with the participant’s permission. The
day “just talking to people.” Whether it was about a
researchers also took handwritten notes.
bad day or layoffs, they needed to hear people out
Qualitative data was manually transcribed to give and have the ability to facilitate two-way communica-
the researchers an opportunity to become deeply fa- tion. This was an overarching theme evident through-
miliar with the source material. Through a manual out the female superintendent interviews.
coding process, transcriptions were open, axial, and
In considering the topics of communication and
finally selective coded (Corbin & Strauss,
leadership, Participant 1 stated, “You need the ability
2008). Emergent themes were identified and then
to communicate the vision and the mission of the or-
grouped together and described in rich descriptive
ganization, need the ability to articulate that vision.”
text.
Participant 2 added, “You need to be caring, com-
The strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats municate extremely well, and need to be very good at
(SWOT) analysis is another tool used to analyze the multitasking. The communication is number one.”
results of our study. SWOT is one way to examine the Participant 3 discussed the importance of commu-
environment around an issue or institution nication with her school board. She was the predeces-
(Balamuralikrishna & Dugger, 1995). This strategic sor to a male superintendent who held the position for
planning activity has been in practice since the 1950s 33 years. She described the prior superintendent as
(DeSilets, 2008) and allows organizations to explore “legendary” and talked candidly about communi-
their interconnections prior to making decisions or cating with the board, her staff, and the community.
changes. She attributed much of her success in the district to
open communication:
Results and Discussion
It goes back to communication. I communi-
The findings from this study are separated into
cate everything with that board. And they are
three sections, addressing each of the three research
shocked; they’ve never had it before. They
questions. Each section looks at the female responses,
are well informed. There are no surprises . . .
male responses, and finally a comparison of the fe-
If there is something coming up, I tell my cab-
male and male responses. The themes that emerged
inet team [that] you need to write a transmit-
from the female interviews include communication,
tal. This is what we need to do. It is a whole
soft language, relationships, vision, and the implica-
cultural shift to bring to the district to ensure
tions of being a female superintendent. The theme
that people are communicating.
that emerged from the male interviews was a unique
approach to the position of superintendency. The fe- Soft language. Related to communication was the
male participants had multiple areas of overlap, using theme soft language. The female superintendents did
similar terms, language, and similar experiences. not feel they could give a direct order or request. In-
Conversely, each male participant had very unique stead they felt required to “front load” their board
responses that did not contain overlap similar to their members and constituents. In order to effectively con-
female counterparts. As reported in the findings, the vey their message, word choice and tone needed to be
responses from each participant highlight these considered and specifically selected for each audience.
themes. The female superintendents felt their communication
Volume 2 ▪ Number 1 ▪ Summer 2017 The Journal of School Administration Research and Development 45
Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
styles were effective, as they achieved success in their much of my day is just talking to people.” Participant
tenure as superintendents; however, this required ex- 3 mentioned the importance of relationships in help-
tensive thought, effort, and understanding of what ing to build resources. Participant 2 confirmed this
they were asking as leaders. They understood the notion by adding, “The superintendent has to have a
dynamics they were entering and found effective strong ability to build established relationships, rap-
ways to ensure the correct processes were being im- port, confidence, and trust with the people she/he
plemented. serves . . . It’s all about building that relationship, that
of trust.”
Reflecting upon the topics of soft language and
leadership, Participant 2 recalled the following when Vision. The theme vision arose as an early indica-
working with her male-dominated executive cabinet: tor of what female superintendents felt was an im-
portant quality of being successful. Senge’s (1990)
I remember once, I said right in the beginning:
Fifth Discipline discusses the importance of vision
‘You know, you might want to consider’ or
when leading an organization and being aware of
‘Have you ever thought about,’ ‘I would en-
how an individual vision may or may not support an
courage you to.’ And after I had done that, all
organization. Each superintendent emphasized that it
of them said, oh my gosh, that’s your way of
was not their personal ideals that were of most con-
telling us what to do. And I said, actually,
cern, but those of the students they were serving that
you’re right. And I laughed about that.
should be most important. They each discussed their
Participant 3 added, “How you project as a female to own visions helping to guide their decisions, especial-
men to get your point across has to be orchestrated ly those that were difficult to make. It is important to
well, it has to be strategic.” This participant provided note that while their personal vision was not what
an example: “I always told a story and I always told drove their decisions, they chose organizations that
my team and my directors, ‘Tell me ahead of time so I aligned to those visions. They worked with organiza-
can front load them two to three weeks in advance.’ tions that had similar principles, values, and ideas so
And then I would tell them, ‘I just want you to know they were comfortable with the mission they were
that this is what was going on . . . this might be com- perpetuating. The idea of visionary leadership sup-
ing.’ ” ports Bolman and Deal’s (2013) Symbolic Framework.
Each female interviewee was connected to their dis-
Relationships. Another evident theme was the
trict without losing sight of doing work that was im-
need to build relationships. Each female described the
portant to each of them.
importance of relationships with groups ranging from
their day-to-day staff to outside colleagues they need- In considering vision and leadership, Participants 2
ed to call on for help. Relationships were at the core and 3 remarked on the importance of being a vision-
of the work each superintendent was doing and con- ary. Participant 2 highlighted the value of the super-
tinued to be a vital part of the success of each female intendent being someone who “really understands the
leader. This theme aligns with Bolman and Deal’s qualities of leadership” and can “inspire and motivate
(2013) Human Resources Framework. The relation- others to not only come on board but to share in the
ships theme emerged through the interviews, even vision.” She provided an example of this by stating,
beyond the initial question of leadership qualities.
I am a firm believer in vision and mission and
The female participants spoke highly of their teams
guiding principles in an organization . . . I
and how they benefitted from building close, working
would say things a thousand times and I
relationships. As one female mentioned, much of her
would repeat things that would just affirm the
day was spent talking to people. She described how
values of the organization . . . When it came to
this is still a hard concept for her to grasp because her
making those tough decisions we could sit
prior job required paperwork and completing multi-
back and say okay, this was what we said we
ple reports, resulting in something tangible to show
believed so it seems to me like the answer is
for each day. The superintendent described her un-
really clear, but I am hearing from all of you
derstanding that while there was no need to produce a
that this is not what we believe so we need to
report, building relationships helped her do a better
change our actions because we can’t say we
job. Each female superintendent felt her relationships
believe this, but then do something different.
were a vital part of their current or prior successes.
Participant 1 spoke of the daunting task of estab-
Participant 1 noted the following on the topics of
lishing a shared mission and vision: “It was about 30
relationships and leadership: “You also need strong
people in total and we worked to create the vision and
interpersonal skills. This is really imperative. So
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Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
mission for the entire district. We spent so much time One of the first things I believe in and tell my
on identifying the right words or phrases to use.” staff is that as a leader, you don’t have a right
to wake up in the morning in a bad mood.
Issues. The female participants expressed areas
You can be in a bad mood, but you go do it
that were issues specifically related to being a female
somewhere else, cannot show your team that.
superintendent. Their experiences corresponded to
There are days, trust me that I am down. But I
those experiences documented in the literature re-
don’t allow myself to be projected out. I catch
view. Their direct quotes demonstrate the issues, per-
myself, so I constantly self-talk myself. Put
ceived or real, that women in leadership positions
myself in check. I started this as an assistant
face. Along with the challenges of the job, female su-
superintendent. Especially for women, you
perintendents are tasked with possessing a strong
have to self-talk, all the time; it never goes
sense of self and the ability to depersonalize some of
away. You have to put yourself in check all
their experiences. One female participant shared her
the time.
experience of being evaluated on her professional
dress––an area her male predecessors had never been Male Responses
evaluated on. These responses imply that female su-
Male participants did not display any overlapping
perintendents require skills to know what it means to
themes for leadership qualities needed for the super-
be a female superintendent
intendent position. However, the male responses did
Participant 2, who was the first female superinten- provide insight into their unique perspectives on the
dent of her district (16 years prior), talked about the necessary skills required to be a successful superinten-
challenges of her experience. When attending confer- dent. The participants’ distinctive responses demon-
ences, she described being directed to the teacher strate how each male had a unique approach to suc-
gathering area and garnering surprised reactions from cessful leadership.
attendees when she declared her superintendent posi-
The participants’ responses aligned with Bolman
tion. She often felt like she had to prove herself and
and Deal’s (2013) Structural Framework. In general,
her strength, as she described a scenario in which she
the male participants were action-oriented and fo-
was asked by a female board member to be “more of a
cused on the organization as a whole. They presented
boss.” Participant 2 went on to ask the board member
skills that were fairly concrete and tangible. Partici-
for clarification by stating, “So what I’m really hearing
pant 6 explained that leader success requires having a
from you is that you want me to slam my fist down
concrete purpose and commitment. Alternatively,
once in a while and yell at someone periodically, and
Participant 5 focused on the importance of being able
she said, ‘Yea, be more of a boss . . . ’ That’s just one
to make a decision, as he described the need to “take
example of what I had. I have stories, and stories like
some action to make those things happen over time,”
that, that were interesting, that I knew if I were a
but also being flexible when things do not work out.
male, I wouldn’t be dealing with.”
Participant 4 stressed the importance of knowing
Participant 1 spoke of the challenges of being a fe-
yourself:
male superintendent and the societal expectation re-
garding familial obligation that are traditionally So the first thing I think of is kind of know
placed on women. When considering the acceptance thyself. So you know you never completely
of the superintendent position, Participant 1 recalled a know yourself. But I think knowing what
conversation she had with her former boss: attributes and characteristics you have and
how those things might relate to the structural
When I was looking at moving into the super-
generic position of superintendent is im-
intendent position, my former boss told me I
portant, but you don’t know that until you
didn’t want to work in a district with a high
actually do the job. . . . So really developing
school. My youngest is seven years old. He
understanding of yourself and understanding
said I would be away at events every night,
of the organization.
and he is still so young. I knew I wasn’t will-
ing to give up that time with him. He is still Additionally, Participant 4 spoke of the importance of
so young so that impacted my decision in stability of leadership for the success of an organiza-
terms of moving into this role. tion, noting a strong correlation between the duration
of the position held and “educational performance in
Participant 3 spoke of the importance of self-talk in
particular towards transformational change.” As
monitoring personal moods and emotions during in-
demonstrated, each participant’s responses were ex-
terpersonal relationships within the workplace:
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Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
clusive to his perspective for the position of superin- ying perspectives that males and females feel in their
tendent. role as superintendent.
Comparison of Responses Female Responses
In reviewing the themes that emerged from the in- Findings from the SWOT analysis uncovered com-
terviews, the responses differed from female to male. mon themes within the female participants (Figure 1).
The first difference is in the topics discussed. The fe- These themes were identified as communication, rela-
males’ comments did have reoccurring themes, while tionships, vision, and gender issues. Several internal
the males’ comments did not. While this is a surpris- strengths emerged while reviewing the participants’
ing finding, the data indicate that the males have a responses through the SWOT. Communication, rela-
broad number of topics to discuss and therefore the tionships, and vision were identified as strengths and
data did not overlap. Many of the qualities the fe- opportunities for female superintendents. Communi-
males participants discussed were interpersonal in cating the needs of the organization, being in cohesion
nature and people-centered, which aligns with Bol- with the board of trustees, and communicating a cul-
man and Deal’s (2013) Human Resource Framework. ture of care were highlighted as strengths. However,
While each female superintendent had her own ap- communicating the differing opinions of individuals
proach to leadership, each perceived the necessary and overturning established practices were both de-
qualities to be a leader similarly. In contrast, the fined as weaknesses.
males interviewed had little to no overlap in their per-
Participants noted the importance of building rela-
ception of qualities needed to be successful as a super-
tionships inside and outside the organization. Rela-
intendent. While there was some discussion of per-
tionships were identified as trusting others, finding
sonal qualities by the male participants, many of the
balance, and celebrating others’ successes. However,
qualities were related to the organization and overall
the relationship with the board of trustees was also
success. The difference in responses clearly demon-
perceived as a potential threat and opportunity. One
strates the distinction in perceived leadership qualities
superintendent pointed out, “When you’re able to
between males and females. All six interviewees ei-
highlight your board of trustees and establish trust
ther held or were currently holding the same position,
within your relationship, you’re able to be more im-
in a relatively small radius of geographic location, and
pactful within the organization.”
yet presented very different qualities needed for su-
perintendent success. The development and establishment of a cohesive
vision within the organization of the district was not-
Leadership Qualities as Assessed Through Bolman
ed as a strength and opportunity. One superintendent
and Deal
stated she was a firm believer in vision, mission, and
Bolman and Deal’s (1990) LOI provided additional guiding principles within an organization. She also
information about participants’ leadership qualities. remarked it would be challenging to lead a district if
Based on the results, many superintendents in this the norms and values of the organization were not
study utilized a multi-frame approach. The partici- clearly articulated.
pants’ means were highest for the Human Resources
Gender issues and feelings of inequality were dis-
Framework, followed by the Symbolic Framework.
cussed through the interview process. Some female
The Structural and Political Frames were low scoring,
participants perceived gender issues as a weakness.
which indicates that they are not as heavily utilized as
One example of a defined weakness was clearly
the other two frames.
shown when Participant 2 stated that throughout her
Research Question 2: What strengths, weaknesses, career as a superintendent, she felt she had to work
opportunities, and threats are experienced in the role harder, show up more, be stronger, and look happier.
of superintendent? When partaking in her formal evaluation, a question
was posed about how she dressed. Upon reviewing
The analysis of an organization is a crucial step in
past male superintendents’ evaluation questions,
the discovery process. SWOT analysis is one tool that
dress attire was not an area of review for her male
has been a simple yet effective framework, allowing
counterparts. Another barrier that a participant felt
organizational features to quickly be defined as
was when a mentor encouraged her to not be superin-
strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats. For
tendent of a high school district. His rationale for the
the purpose of this case study, a SWOT analysis was
advice was that he felt running a high school district,
utilized to review the responses of those interviewed
and the late night obligations associated with the posi-
to discover common emergent themes. This was done
to provide deeper insight into understanding the var-
Volume 2 ▪ Number 1 ▪ Summer 2017 The Journal of School Administration Research and Development 48
Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
tion, was not feasible for a mother with young chil- es, which we defined as weaknesses within the organ-
dren. ization.
Establishing and maintaining relationships within
Male Responses
the organization were defined as both a strength and
Similar themes were uncovered for the male par- opportunity. One superintendent remarked when
ticipants within the findings from the SWOT analysis you “treat everyone from a board member to a food
(Figure 2). These themes were identified as communi- service worker with the same level of respect, I think
cation, relationships, and vision. Gender issues and feel- that transforms a district and sets the tone that every-
ings of inequality were not a defined theme from male one has a seat at the table and everyone’s voice will be
participants. The importance of communication for heard.” Another participant stated the importance of
the superintendency was defined as a strength, as was being “hard on the issues but soft on people.” This
making decisions and embracing the responsibility of resonated a common sentiment of the participants of
the position. A weakness, which was noted by more the importance of building solid relationships within
than one participant, was the challenge in changing the organization.
others’ perspectives. Raising the expectations of indi-
The challenge of creating a shared vision within the
viduals was also stated as a weakness from more than
organization was a perceived weakness to several par-
one participant. In both instances, superintendents
ticipants. One superintendent stated he felt people’s
described the difficulty in reforming practices that
expectations could be barriers to the organization.
have always been in place, which had not been chal-
Conversely, some superintendents viewed individuals
lenged or changed throughout the years. Encouraging
who challenge the system or vision as an opportunity
and requiring these changes were viewed as challeng-
for growth within the organization. They also viewed
Figure 1. Female superintendent SWOT analysis chart.
Volume 2 ▪ Number 1 ▪ Summer 2017 The Journal of School Administration Research and Development 49
Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
Figure 2. Male superintendent SWOT analysis chart.(cid:3)
those hard-handed decisions and the responsibility superintendent. Although the number of females
that is accompanied with the job as an opportunity. within the role of superintendent has steadily in-
creased over the past few decades, there continues to
The male participants were able to define more
be obvious challenges that females face that their male
threats and weaknesses than strengths and opportuni-
counterparts do not.
ties as compared to the female participants. The fe-
male participants noted more strengths and opportu- Research Question 3: What commonalities exist as it
nities above all others. Additionally, male partici- relates to the career pathway towards becoming a
pants did not recognize gender issues. Communica- superintendent ?
tion and relationship building were both identified as
The last area considered in this case study was that
areas of strength by both groups of participants. Both
of the career pathway of each person interviewed as
groups noted there are opportunities available given
they worked towards becoming a superintendent.
their ongoing interactions with the boards of trustees.
Unlike the responses to previous research questions,
Both groups also agreed that working with differing
the interviewees did not elaborate on their career
opinions, raising expectations, and changing decisions
pathways, thus their responses were concise.
and perspectives were a defined weakness within
their organizations. Lastly, the cultural practices of Female Responses
the district and how to approach what has been main-
Prior to taking on the role of the superintendent, all
tained within the organization were noted as threats.
three female participants held the positions of teacher,
One obvious theme missing from the male partici- assistant principal, and principal. The female partici-
pants as compared to females was the feeling of ine- pants all pursued education and did not consider oth-
quality and gender issues. None of the male partici- er careers choices.
pants recognized any threats or weaknesses of being a
All three females spoke of the importance of hold-
male superintendent, whereas several of the female
ing different positions leading up to the superintend-
participants noted feelings of inequality being a fe-
ency. All participants explained that their experiences
male and the challenges accompanied with serving as
Volume 2 ▪ Number 1 ▪ Summer 2017 The Journal of School Administration Research and Development 50
Journal of School Administration Research and Development Summer 2017
in the different positions helped better prepare them and answering the call to serving and making a difference
for the challenges that they face in the role of superin- in the lives of children.
tendent. The amount of time spent in each position
Limitations
was not as important as how effective they were as a
leader in those positions. Additionally, the For the findings of this study to be properly under-
knowledge they were able to gain while serving in stood, they should be considered in the context of
prior roles allowed them to be more effective in the their limitations. The researchers were required to
educational leadership position. complete the study within a limited timeframe, thus
resulting in a relatively small sample size of male and
Male Responses
female participants. A larger sample size may have
Similar to the female participants, all three males provided a more in-depth analysis highlighting addi-
held the positions of teacher, assistant principal, and tional themes for exploration. Second, because this
principal. While none changed careers mid-life, two study relied on self-reported data, it may have been
of the three did speak of how education was not their influenced by poor understanding and could be vul-
original field of study in college. However these two nerable to intentional deception that comes from the
participants expressed their need and desire to make a desire to conform to social expectations. Although
difference in children’s lives as a factor in their ulti- our participants seemed to speak candidly in response
mate decision to pursue a career in education. to the research questions, some may not have felt safe
to be forthcoming, resulting in guarded responses.
There were no common themes that emerged in the
male responses to career pathways when they elabo- Implications and Future Research
rated on this particular question. One spoke of the
Issues of gender bias are ever present. When com-
need to become more assertive in the leadership role.
pared to men, women are still perceived as being infe-
He spoke about having tough conversations with peo-
rior in both strength and intelligence. Many still fear
ple and how this was a weakness of his, so to help
that women will make decisions based on emotion
improve this skill, he sought out a position in human
rather than facts. This is an area that would be worth
resources to build on this area. He stated he used to
exploring by further interviewing and surveying mul-
be a “fixer,” but using his experience in the variety of
tiple stakeholders regarding their perspectives on
positions held helped him to understand that it is his
women in positions of power and their abilities to ef-
job to challenge the barriers of his team. Another
fectively lead an organization. An additional area for
spoke about the superintendency as the opportunity
future research is the decision-making process behind
for personal growth and the ability to do a million
a woman’s choice of pursuing a high-power educa-
jobs in one. He also said the superintendency pro-
tional leadership position such as superintendent.
vides great opportunity for “scaling,” which he de-
With more men choosing to adopt the role of the stay-
scribed as going from micro-granular to the big pic-
at-home parent or follow the non-traditional path and
ture and back. He sees his role in the bigger picture as
support and accept the woman as the top salary earn-
making the world a better place. Another spoke of the
er, women may begin to feel more inclined to pursue a
influence of his father being a migrant farm worker,
superintendent position without feeling any sense of
which caused his family to move around a lot as a
guilt in doing so. Lastly, additional areas of research
child. This personal experience led to a better under-
may include expanding the study sample size, com-
standing and appreciation for the struggles and chal-
paring urban versus rural school district superinten-
lenges that children of farm workers face each day.
dents, and comparing challenges of women and men
He noted that as a superintendent, “you have an op-
seeking administrative roles in higher education.
portunity each day to make a difference”.
Continued research on this topic will add to the grow-
Combined Female and Male Responses and Emer- ing knowledge base of female leaders.
gent Themes
Conclusion
While discussing their career pathways, all six par-
The findings from this case study indicate there
ticipants described an obvious passion for the work
were no common themes within male and female re-
they do and displayed a strong commitment to im-
spondents. Female superintendents gave similar re-
proving school environments and fostering student
sponses to each other and themes of communication,
learning. All six highlighted similar themes of the im-
relationships, vision, and ideas of gender bias
portance of knowing thyself, having a defined mission and
emerged. The women interviewed described their
vision that is developed and shared with the stakeholders,
perceived struggles with being a female in the super-
Volume 2 ▪ Number 1 ▪ Summer 2017 The Journal of School Administration Research and Development 51