ERIC EJ1150212: Global Citizenship and Global Solidarity through Study Abroad: An Exploratory Case Study of South Korean Students

2011·0.21 MB·English

by  ERIC

Journal of International Social Studies
http://www.iajiss.org

Global Citizenship and Global Solidarity through Study Abroad:
An Exploratory Case Study of South Korean Students

Sohyun An
Kennesaw State University

Given the increasing numbers of pre-collegiate students who study abroad, this article seeks to
answer the question of what kind of citizen young international students seek to become through
study abroad and in what ways study abroad experiences challenge or reinforce their initial
motives. Drawing on in-depth interviews with Korean high school students studying in the
United States, this article suggests that while the core meaning of study abroad may be strategic
interests within the global economy, the pragmatic instrumentalism and neoliberal ethos toward
education and global citizenship can be challenged. The most significant factors identified in the
article are: 1) social studies curriculum that challenges international students’ desires of
strategic cosmopolitanism, and 2) a school culture that encourages young international students
to mix with other races/cultures and reconsider their pre-migration views. The article offers a
discussion of how both sending and receiving countries of young international students can
support them so that they become citizens concerned, not only with their strategic positioning
within the global economy, but also with building a moral sense of global solidarity.

Keywords: international education, citizenship education, social studies

It has been argued that study abroad can also with building a moral sense of global
develop a global citizenry that cherishes the solidarity?
right and duty to change the world by This study seeks to answer this critical
offering opportunities to meet new people question through an exploratory case study
with different cultural norms and to of young Korean international students.
reconsider one‘s own cultural and national South Korea is one of the countries whose
affiliations (Szelenyi & Rhoads, 2007; young citizens study abroad at a remarkable
Waters, 2009). It also has been noted that rate. In the past, only a few wealthy Korean
study abroad can give rise to largely families sent their children to Western
instrumental notions of global citizenship countries for study abroad. These days,
that are disengaged from notions of a global however, middle-class South Korean
public good with little concern for social families send their children abroad at an
justice on the local, national, and global unprecedented rate, making for a veritable
levels (Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Ong, 2004; education exodus of the middle class (J.
Rizvi, 2005). How and in what ways can Kim, 2010). This phenomenon offers a rich
study abroad develop citizens who are case for understanding the impacts of study
concerned not just with their strategic

positioning within the global economy but

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abroad on citizenship education in an age of local, national, and global communities
globalization. Through the narratives of (Collins, 2008; Rizvi, 2005; Szelenyi &
Korean international high school students, Rhoads, 2007; Waters, 2006). However, a
this study examines: 1) what kind of citizens more recent and expanding group of critical
young Koreans seek to become through scholars has started to address this limitation
study abroad and in what ways study abroad with research that considers international
experiences challenge or reinforce their students as citizens and looks at the relation
initial motives; and 2) in what ways (if at of study abroad to global citizenship (e.g.,
all) study abroad contributes to a formation Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Ong, 2004; Rizvi,
of globally oriented subjectivities which are 2005; Szelenyi & Rhoads, 2007). This paper
not just informed by strategic economic contributes to this emerging literature on
possibilities but also by civic dimensions of study abroad by exploring why young
global interconnectivity. students study abroad and what kind of
In the following sections, I first review citizens they become through overseas
previous studies on the relation of study education.
abroad to global citizenship and provide a Setting a precedent, Matthews & Sidhu‘s
brief overview of the South Korean (2005) study is one of the few studies that
education exodus. I then describe and investigated pre-collegiate international
discuss the methods and findings of the students‘ notions of global citizenship. Most
study. I conclude by considering the students in the study came from Asia in
implications of the findings for citizenship order to attend Australian high schools
education in a global age. because they believed an English-based
education would provide a comparative
Study Abroad and Citizenship Education
employment advantage in the global

marketplace. The students‘ pragmatic
Most of the empirical work on study
instrumentalism, or tendency to find the
abroad (e.g.; Al-Sharideh & Goe, 1998;
value of study abroad only in how it
Bradley, 2000; Volet & Renshaw, 1996;
prepares them for the job market, hardly
Zhao, Kuh & Carini, 2005) has concentrated
changed, partly due to the lack of social
on the tertiary education sector, and it is
interaction with local students. By remaining
largely limited to examining cultural
with other international students, they had
adaption, social adjustment, psychological
little chance to reconsider their neoliberal
well-being, or educational achievement of
ethos. According to the co-researchers, not
international students. There has been a lack
only the cultural/linguistic barrier but also
of attention to international students as
Anglo-Australian peers‘ indifference, fear,
citizens who exercise their rights and duties
or ignorance of foreign ―others‖ led the
in local, national, and global contexts
international students to be separated and
(Collins, 2008; Matthews & Sidhu, 2005;
disconnected from local students.
Rizvi, 2005; Szelenyi & Rhoads, 2007).
Ong (2004) and Rizvi (2005) also have
Because of declining domestic
discussed the kinds of citizenship emerging
enrollments and public disinvestment in
from study abroad, although their focus was
Western higher education in this neoliberal
on tertiary education. Initial motives and
global economy, international students are
meanings of study abroad to the
often viewed as overseas customers of
international students in the United States
education products rather than citizens in

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(Ong, 2004) and Australian higher education cross-cultural interactions within and
(Rizvi, 2005) could be described as a kind of beyond the school and university. In the
global acceptance based on amassing present paper, I develop these discussions
Western knowledge capital, rather than on through an empirical investigation of
sharing basic values of democratic Korean international high school students
citizenship; for example, democracy, studying in the United States. Given the
equality, and pluralism. Over the course of increasing numbers of pre-collegiate
the study abroad, this initial motive was not students who study abroad, more studies on
challenged but was instead perpetuated. young international students and their ideas
Both researchers suggested that colleges and and experiences of study abroad would
universities receiving international students contribute to this emergent literature on the
should provide forms of education through relation of international education and
which international students learn about citizenship education.
themselves in relation to others, so that
overseas education credentials do not Young International Students from South
contribute to the economic exploitation of Korea
others but open up genuine possibilities of
cosmopolitan solidarity. The South Korean education exodus
While the almost exclusively offers a rich case for understanding the
instrumental notions of study abroad and motives and meanings of study abroad for
global citizenship were also held by several young students and the effects of study
international graduate students studying in abroad experiences on these developing
the United States, Szelenyi and Rhoads citizens in the contemporary age of
(2007) found that for other international globalization. The number of South Korean
graduate students, their study abroad students from elementary school through
experiences did offer venues for broadening high school who study abroad increased to
views, promoting the understanding of other 27,350 in 2008 from 1,840 in 1999. A 2008
cultures, and strengthening their ability for survey by South Korea‘s National Statistical
critique. Szelenyi and Rhoads (2007) Office, found that 48.3 percent of South
suggested that this difference could be Korean parents said they want to their
explained by multiple factors, including the children to study abroad, and more than 12
international graduate students‘ home percent want them to study abroad as early
country contexts, areas of study, previous as elementary school. The desires and
experiences with global citizenship, and/or ventures of South Koreans so-called early-
intercultural encounters. study-abroad (namely, study abroad prior to
These findings suggest that international college) experiences reflect a complex
students may venture to study abroad with confluence of factors. These include South
almost exclusively strategic interests within Korea‘s national globalization project
the global economy, and their pragmatic initiated in the 1990s; the aggressive
instrumentalism and neoliberal ethos toward neoliberalization of the South Korean
education, citizenship, and globalization can economy in a response to the 1997 IMF
be reinforced or challenged by factors such Asian Debt Crisis; the adoption of English
as the school and university curriculum and as a formal subject in elementary school in
1997; the symbolic and practical value of

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English to achieve upward mobility in South Encountering the ever-increasing numbers
Korea; and South Korea‘s highly of Korean youth who study abroad,
competitive schooling, to name a few (Cho, researchers began to investigate the various
2004; J. Kim, 2010; Koo, 2007; Park & effects of study abroad on young students.
Abelmann, 2004; Song, 2010). To date, academic attention has been
Many scholars explain this education primarily placed upon the students‘
exodus as the middle-class South Koreans‘ academic achievement, English skill
response to the complex conditions on the acquisition, cultural adjustment, or
local, national, and global levels. As South psychological well-being (M. Kang, 2008;
Korea becomes more closely integrated into H. Kim, 2009; J. Kim, 2010; Y. Kim, Choi
the global economy, English skills have & Lee, 2006; D. Lee, 2010). Few studies
become widely regarded as a measure of have viewed the students as future citizens
one‘s competence (Koo, 2007). Those with and examined what kinds of citizens they
low English competency are regarded as become through study abroad. In addition,
outdated and lacking the proper previous studies investigated this
sociocultural aptitude required for the phenomenon mostly from the angle of the
globalizing world (J. Kim, 2010; Koo, 2007; parents who send their children abroad,
Park & Abelmann, 2004; Song, 2010). ignoring how the students themselves make
Individual competence in English is closely sense of changing local and global contexts
linked to occupational success and social and their study abroad experiences. Thus,
mobility in South Korea (Koo, 2007). this study extends previous research by
Besides supporting English skill acquisition, exploring the meanings, motives, and effects
study abroad also functions as an alternative of study abroad from the angle of young
route for school success. Particularly for the Korean international students as future
middle or high school students who struggle citizens.
in the highly competitive Korean schooling
system, study abroad offers not only a The Study
chance to learn English skills but also an
easier academic route to college. Compared Data were collected in the academic year of
to a very competitive and highly stratified 2006-2007 through in-depth interviews with
Korean schooling, the United States and twenty-seven Korean international high
other Western educational systems are often school students in a United States city in the
considered ―easier‖ or ―humane‖ by many Midwest. The research site has a population
Koreans (Koo, 2007). Moreover, as with of 200,000 and is home to a large state
English proficiency, a ‗Western university university. The Korean community in the
degree‘ has always been considered the area mainly consisted of pre-collegiate study
mark of class and status in South Korea as abroad students, tertiary international
well as an express ticket to social mobility students, visiting scholars and their family
(Park & Abelmann, 2004; Rhee, 2002). members, and a much smaller population of
While Western higher education was immigrants. In the era of transnational
accessible for a small number of wealthy migration when people constantly move
Koreans in the past, it has become a popular back and forth with an increase of people
and desired good for many Koreans today holding dual or multiple passports as well as
due to the ascendance of the middle-class a growing discrepancy between legal
and the relative ease of international travel.

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membership, national identity, and the asked them to talk about their motives for
territorial state (Taylor, 1994), it is difficult studying abroad, experiences in United
to draw a clear line between the concept of States schools, peer relationships, future
―immigrant students‖ and ―international plans, and overall evaluation of their study
students‖. In this study, I define Korean abroad experiences. Particular attention was
international students as students of Korean paid to their initial motives behind the
heritage who, regardless of their birthplace decision to study abroad and how and why
(South Korea or the United States) or legal they have changed or remained the same.
citizenship status, made a conscious decision The individual interviews took one to two
to pursue education in a school in the hours each, and were audio-recorded and
United States and whose families are not in transcribed. After transcription, I conducted
the process of immigration. During the a systemic content analysis of the interview
research period, there were about forty data with inductive coding and constant
Korean international high school students in comparison (Miles & Huberman, 1994;
the area. Using a snowball sampling method, Strauss & Corbin, 1990), searching for
I invited all students to join the study via similarities, differences, patterns, themes,
email or telephone so as to understand discrepant evidences, and general categories
Korean international high school students in of responses.
the area more fully and extensively. In the
end, the total number of participants was Findings
twenty-seven. The students were between
fifteen and eighteen years of age. They had Why They Study Abroad: Initial Notions of
been in the United States between one and Global Citizens
five years. There were seventeen females
The stories of how the participants came
and ten males. Two went to private schools
to the US were as diverse as their twenty-
and twenty-five went to one of three public
seven unique faces and personalities. Some
high schools in the area. Fifteen were born
students began their stories with, ―I didn‘t
in the United States during their parents‘
do well there, but in America getting good
higher education study abroad and twelve
GPA and going to college is easy‖; others
were born in South Korea. The majority (22)
came because ―my brother was kind of
came to the United States right before or
failure and so he came first, then I joined
after finishing middle school in South Korea,
whereas two and three came as 6th and 10th him later‖; others came because ―my mom
got accepted to a graduate program in the
graders, respectively. The majority (22)
university here and so she brought me to
came with their mothers and/or siblings
learn English for free‖; some came because
while their fathers lived in South Korea to
―I was bullied by mean kids and I wasn‘t
earn the money to finance these ventures.
happy to go to school there‖; some came
Three stayed with their older siblings
because ―I hated study study study all the
attending colleges/universities. Two lived
times. I couldn‘t go to bed until 1 a.m.
with legal guardians. The students came
because of series of tutoring, cram school
from middle-class families who could afford
lessons, and homework.‖
transnational living and their children‘s
Almost ubiquitous among the varied
international education.
contexts behind their decision to study
I conducted face-to-face in-depth

interviews with individual students and

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abroad was a perceived necessity of English remaining five students also planned to go
skills and/or a diploma from a United States on to college in the United States, but they
university for socioeconomic success in the left open whether or not they would get a
local/global setting. As Kiyoung says below, job in South Korea or in other countries.
being bullied caused her to start thinking Students‘ carefully planned migration
about study abroad as an option, but the for ―better education‖ reflects what Ong
driving force behind her decision was the (1999) calls ‗flexible citizenship.‘ This
assumed benefit of study abroad for concept of citizenship signifies rights for
professional career success. individual advancement in the global
capitalism over duties as citizens (Szelenyi
I was bullied by mean kids. They & Rhoads, 2007). In their stories of initial
bullied me because I didn‘t wear decision-making to study abroad, most
brand-name clothes or I wasn‘t students exhibited a yearning for global
looking ―cool‖. My parents were acceptance based on amassing individual
searching for an alternative knowledge and cultural capital while they
school in Korea for me… but lacked interests in learning and participating
then we thought why not study in activities for equality and social justice.
abroad in America? We are This suggests that international students
living in a global world! In including the students in the study
America, I can learn English and participate in an economic exchange, and
go to college easily. Then, are likely to be concerned less with the
whether I go back or get a job moral civic dimensions of global citizenship
here, I would have a better than with its strategic economic possibilities
chance to be successful. (Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Ong, 2004;
Rizvi, 2005).
Like Kiyoung, most students viewed Also revealing in students‘ decisions to
English proficiency and a United States study abroad were their perceptions of a
college degree as necessary to get ahead in ―globalizing world‖. Many students
globalized South Korea and the world or interpreted globalization as an inevitable
both. For them, study abroad meant a means societal development to which they must
to better position themselves within the adjust to survive or succeed. Study abroad in
changing structures of the local/global the United States was their way to navigate
economy which increasingly prizes ―global the social change. The inevitability of
skills‖ such as English proficiency and an globalization was rarely questioned, despite
American education (J. Kim, 2010; the fact that many were not happy with it.
Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Ong, 2004; Rizvi, Soobin recollects:
2005; Waters, 2006). This was also strongly
reflected in their initial plan of how long I felt so sorry for my dad
they would stay in the United States. The because he was going to live
majority (22 out of 27) planned to go on to alone while all of us, me, my
college in the United States and go back to brother and mom, were coming
South Korea where a United States college to America. I was also very sad
education would give them a competitive to leave my friends. But, you
advantage in the local job market. The know… everybody knows

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English is important and the those who benefit from it and those who do
world is getting more and more not. This governmental project of
globalized! Companies like globalization boosted the English education
Samsung or LG look for a market in South Korea. According to one
person who can speak English estimate, South Koreans spent over $3.3
well, graduated from a US elite billion per year for children‘s English
college, to compete with other education, and over $800 million per year
countries. for children‘s study abroad (Park &
Abelmann, 2004). Despite many students
To Soobin and many others, globalization dislike over leaving their families, friends,
was, despite its financial, familial, and social and familiar world behind, they choose to go
cost, an unavoidable context they needed to abroad to negotiate with the imperatives of
align with. For them, a successful person in globalization. By going abroad they wish to
this age of globalization was a strategic survive or succeed in a globalized era when
economic player equipped with ―global an English based education will provide a
skills‖ such as English mastery. It was not comparative employment advantage.
the one who questioned and resisted the
sweeping changes that are underway by The Changing Meanings of Study Abroad
globalization, especially the through Intercultural Encounter
symbolic/practical value of English and
Western education credentials in class The pragmatic instrumentalism evident in
reproduction and social exclusion at local the students‘ motives to study abroad hardly
and global levels. changed over the course of study in the
Indeed, students‘ decisions to study United States. Looking back on their
abroad reflected the dominant discourse of experiences as international students, many
globalization promoted by the South Korean students focused primarily on the value of
government (Park & Abelmann, 2004). For study abroad as an easy/effective route to
example, in the 1990s the government set academic success and later career success.
the development of ―global individuals‖ as For example, Boyeon recounts:
the nation‘s educational aim and adopted
English as a formal subject in elementary I am very glad that I decided to
school, which was offered in middle school come! I recently got admission
for the first time (J. Kim, 2010; Koo, 2007; letters from several American
Park & Abelmann, 2004; Song, 2010). As in universities! If I didn‘t come, I
many countries (Myers, 2010), the South would end up going to just a so-
Korean curriculum is framed by global so college in Korea, which
perspectives that provide the rationale for would not get me into a high
English education rather than integrating paying job.
globalization as a curriculum topic that
students are encouraged to question and When probed to talk about different
examine. For example, the questioning and aspects of study abroad that she
examination of the contested, multiple liked/disliked, Boyeon shared, ―I miss my
dimensions of globalization, especially friends, miss all the fun stuff that we did
regarding the growing inequities between together. Here things are so boring. Nothing
to do!‖

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In contrast, a few, if not the majority, English well. We are very
went beyond instrumental benefits of study different… It‘s a lot comfortable
abroad. For instance, Jeesoo said: with us.

When I came here, I intentionally Like Changsoo, many students pinpointed
avoided Korean kids. It won‘t do language/culture differences as the main
any good to improve my English reason for having few friendships outside of
if I just hang out with them. So I Koreans. Students also mentioned the
tried to be friends with others, institutional barriers such as social divisions
and I got to know people who are along racial, cultural, and national lines in a
very different from me. In fact, United States school (S. Lee, 2002, 2005;
my best friend here is Hema, Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Olsen, 1997).
she‘s from India. She‘s a very Indeed, it was very challenging for my
smart fun girl and I learned a lot participants, ―new faces‖ to the school, to
from her. Before then, I used to initiate interracial/intercultural mixing.
think India is like a poor country Again, similar to Matthews and Sidhu‘s
with weird culture as you often (2005) finding, lack of meaningful
see in TV. interaction with non-Koreans limited a
chance not only to improve English but also
Jeesoo‘s story evidences a possibility of to examine premigration views on other
study abroad in broadening horizons through races/cultures. When probed about what he
meaningful intercultural encounter. meant by ―American,‖ when he said ―I tried
Although it was pragmatic instrumentalism to have American friends,‖ Changsoo
for her to socialize with non-Koreans, clarified:
Jeesoo appreciated the opportunity to
engage in mutual interactions and exchanges I mean whites. Well… blacks
of different understandings, worldviews, and and Hispanics are also American.
experiences. But … they are not original
As Jeesoo hinted above, most students Americans, aren‘t they?! Plus
in this study kept to themselves, rarely they seemed not into study. Some
socializing with non-Koreans. Consistent of them are quite mean and
with Matthews and Sidhu‘s (2005) findings, problem makers. Hispanic kids
intercultural mixing of international students don‘t even speak English. I came
with the local youth was not the rule but the here to study, learn English!
exception. Changsoo explains:
Like Changsoo, students who had little
Like everybody else, I wanted to interracial/intercultural encounter had rare
have American friends when I chances to reconsider their premigration
first got here so that I could view of other races as well as American
improve my English. But, you identity, and some even formed new
know, they aren‘t interested in prejudices against others.
us. Why would they be? They
have their own friends
already… We can‘t speak

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Changing Meanings of Study Abroad parents still think that way.
through School Curriculum We‘d better teach the truth.

Besides intercultural encounters through Eunsoo‘s experience suggests a possibility
peer relationships, curriculum in a United of study abroad in challenging international
States school may also provide a students to examine their previous ideas,
transformational learning opportunity in comparing and contrasting the state of things
which students imagine themselves and the in their home and host countries, and further
world in new ways, question and explore developing a sense of responsibility to be
their own and other‘s values, and become informed and tolerant. Although the initial
active and informed citizens not only in their meaning of study abroad to Eunsoo was a
own local communities but also in making calculated strategy for class reproduction
choices which might have an impact on and social exclusion, Eunsoo began to form
people in other parts of the world. Because civic awareness and take civic
social studies education is the curricular responsibilities through her learning
home of citizenship education, and because experience in social studies classroom.
one of the important goals for today‘s When probed, Eunsoo shared her
citizenship education is to prepare students dissatisfaction with the social studies class
for the globalizing world (Banks, 2004; in United States history because ―teachers
Merryfield & Wilson, 2005 ; Myers, 2006 ), and students often talk about something that
I particularly focused on the impact of social I never heard before. And they just assume
studies courses on my participants. When I that I would or should know. But this is my
asked students to talk about their experience first time actually learn about United States
of learning social studies in United States history in-depth.‖ Although Eunsoo was
schools, Eunsoo described: more proficient in English than many other
students in the study, her lack of background
I used to think America is the knowledge in American history and society
best county in the world. A created a challenge for her A social studies
country of democracy and classroom, which is full of engaging and
American dream! That‘s what student-centered pedagogy, as well as
we learn in Korea, right?! But academically rigorous content designed to
here one day in a social studies develop critical thinking and multiple
class the teacher taught about perspectives, can be irrelevant or ineffective
racism and inequality in for international students, if it does not take
America today. It was shocking! into account the possible lack of background
But then it kind of made sense knowledge of the international students.
to me, because, whenever I look However, at least the social studies
around, people working at course indeed made a positive impact on
McDonald or low-paying jobs Eunsoo in terms of broadening her
are mostly blacks or Hispanics. I perspectives on race and racism, which is
used to think they are just lazy, important for global citizens. Taehee‘s story
not smart, or they just don‘t was also telling in this regard. When I
bother to live better. I think asked her about social studies classes that
people in Korea and even my she took in the United States, Taehee said:

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One day, we were learning about several students disliked social studies
Vietnam War era. The teacher classes because of their degree of fluency in
had students to discuss how they English or the level of their background
(American students) would feel knowledge, as indicated by the following
about the war if they were the statements: ―my English is not great, and it‘s
Vietnamese at that time. It was hard to understand what the teacher says‖
―wow‖ to me. It‘s like in Korea a and ―I don‘t have background knowledge as
teacher asks us to think about much as American kids have.‖
Japan‘s colonization of Korea
from Japanese point of view! Discussion and Conclusions
Can you believe it? I never had a
teacher who taught things that Findings of the study suggest both
way. I never thought what we possibilities and limitations for study abroad
think about our history is just one in the development of globally oriented
way to look at! citizen. In a positive light, this study shows
that although pre-collegiate international
Taehee‘s case evidences that social students may venture to study abroad for
studies has the potential to challenge strategic interests within the global economy
students to rethink nationalism in the age of with little concern for global civility or
globalization. Especially in a classroom solidarity, study abroad can provide a terrain
where international students are present, for challenging motives driven by a
teaching a nation‘s history from comparative, neoliberal perspective of globalization,
international perspectives would help not broadening their horizons, and developing
only local students but also international locally/globally responsible citizenship
students develop a better understanding of (Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Ong, 2004;
history and examine nation-centric views of Rizvi, 2005; Szelenyi & Rhoads,2007). A
the world. Indeed, multiple perspectives are few students in this study appreciated their
basic skills for citizens who live in inter- intercultural learning through meaningful
connected worlds (Banks, 2004; Gaudelli, interaction with students from different
2003; Merryfield, 2001; Noddings, 2005). backgrounds. Two students particularly
Unlike Taehee and Eunsoo, the majority shared an ―a-ha‖ moment in a social studies
of the participants in the study did not class that helped them to broaden their
experience a social studies class in United views and strengthen their ability for the
States schools as ―eye-opening.‖ Rather, it critique of racism or nationalism. These
was one of their least favorites. In many skills and dispositions are essential for them
students‘ words, ―like in Korea, teachers in to become more globally oriented citizens of
America also teach in a boring way—it‘s all an interconnected world (Banks, 2004;
about memorization, lecture, note-taking! Gaudelli, 2003; Merryfield, 2001; Noddings,
Well… they use PowerPoint, or sometimes 2005).
movies or discussion but… I can‘t relate to Going abroad to study, however, does not
that.‖ A social studies class, which engages automatically turn this possibility into
students in active learning of multicultural reality (Matthews & Sidhu, 2005; Ong,
and global awareness, did not seem to be the 2004; Rizvi, 2005; Szelenyi & Rhoads,
rule, but rather the exception. In addition, 2007). Due to a lack of English skills,
cultural differences, or local students‘

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