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Teaching sensitive issues in cyberpsychology Jacqui Taylor, John McAlaney, Sarah Muir & Terri Cole In contrast to the helpful sources of guidance and regulations for researchers designing and conducting experiments in cyberpsychology, there is very little guidance available for academics and teachers teaching sensitive issues related to behavior in the online world. There are many potential dangers for psychology students when learning about cyberpsychology, ranging from being exposed to upsetting or illegal behaviour viewed in videos or images, to questioning their own sense of morality and understanding of self, to experiencing harassment or hacking. This paper will highlight our own experiences of teaching cyberpsychology to first and third year psychology students, highlighting some of the potential dangers. We suggest recommendations for academics to ensure that students are protected as far as is possible. Keywords: Cyberpsychology; sensitive issues; online behavior; online dangers; online morality. 1.0 Introduction THERE IS NO SHORTAGE of research This article will highlight our experiences investigating the impacts of technology teaching cyberpsychology to undergraduate and the internet and many sensitive psychology students and will discuss the ways topics are explored in this research (e.g. that we have guided and supported them. Attrill, 2015). Online research can pose many Section 2 is divided into three parts: section challenges in adhering to existing ethical 2.1 will explore the motivations that lead to principles in psychology (BPS, 2014) and people behaving in a deviant or deceptive in 2013, the BPS published Ethics Guidelines way online; next (section 2.2) we explore for Internet-mediated Research to address these the impacts of the internet on individuals challenges. However, although some of these and cover the topics of cyberbullying, cyber- principles are relevant to both teaching and harassment, trolling, online health and sexual research, there is very little ethical guidance behavior; finally in section 2.3 we discuss specifically for teachers of cyberpsychology. many of the moral and legal issues involved There are many potential dangers for when teaching cybersecurity. In section 3, psychology students when learning about we summarise our recommendations for cyberpsychology. The many examples of academics to help to ensure that students students and children being exposed to are supported and protected when learning upsetting or illegal videos and images during about sensitive issues in the online world. online researching are identified by the extensive European-wide review and survey 2.0 Examples of teaching sensitive conducted by Livingstone et al. (2011). issues relating to the psychological and However, less visible and under-researched social impacts of the internet impacts also include students questioning We will highlight our experiences teaching their own moral compass and understanding sensitive issues to undergraduate psychology of their self or identity when engaging with students; the majority of examples come from sensitive materials online. Negative commu- experiences within our final year unit ‘Cyberpsy- nication such as harassment or hacking may chology’, but also from teaching a guest be experienced following participation in lecture on a first year unit on ‘Current Issues social media through posts or tweets. Exam- in Psychology’ and other final year units in ples of these emotional, behavioural and ‘Forensic Psychology’ and ‘Health Psychology’. cognitive effects will now be discussed. Within each section we highlight ways that we 56 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 1, 2017 Teaching sensitive issues in cyberpsychology have protected, guided and supported students they encourage more interactivity and are with the specific issues that could arise. less likely to be dominated by one or two students, compared to face-to-face discus- 2.1 Exploring why people are deviant or sions (Herring & Stoerger, 2014). Although deceptive online not anonymous, online discussions provide One of the areas that researchers have inves- a forum where it is possible for students to tigated is the motivations behind online devi- be less inhibited. Suler (2004a) defines this ance. A number of approaches exist, each as the ‘online disinhibition effect’ because focussing on different aspects to explain without having to deal with face-to-face deviant behaviour; some approaches draw encounters, people can express themselves on the media, others on the group context more openly. Students who are socially and others on individual characteristics. anxious often find online discussions to be Suler (2004b) identifies the ‘online disinhi- more enjoyable (Taylor, 2002) as they reduce bition effect’ to explain many of the effects anxieties around negative evaluation from and this approach has been applied widely others. Asynchronous online discussions can over the last 15 years. allow students to be their true selves, however Teaching and learning mainly took place this does not come without risks relating to through online asynchronous discussions self-disclosure and therefore students need within a third year Cyberpsychology unit. to be warned about this possible effect and Before teaching began the following text was the online discussion board should be set placed on the presentation slides 48 hours up so that students can delete their own prior to the lecture warning of the material messages. Savin-Baden et al. (2013) inves- to be covered: tigated student disclosure when they were asked to respond candidly to a lifestyle ‘When researching the topic of deviance, please choices online survey and found correla- be mindful that online searching could result tions between a user’s sense of trust, levels in things you wish you had not seen. There- of truthfulness and engagement. An issue fore, please think carefully regarding your for future consideration is that as students search terms, consider filters and think care- took part in the online discussions asynchro- fully before clicking on any links. Remember nously they may not have support available your digital path can always be tracked. If you should they experience an uncomfortable do come across anything which makes you feel topic or feeling. Many students participated uncomfortable, please inform the appropriate outside of the working day, often late at service (such as CEOP, IT support) or discuss night, when tired or potentially under the with BU counselling.’ influence of alcohol or drugs which could affect perceptions or behaviour. Issues that were debated within the online The wider issue of morality in videogames discussions included: differences between provoked much discussion. Videogames now online and offline deviance; online iden- have advanced graphics so that for many tity deception and persuasion involved in players the gap between reality and fantasy grooming or scamming, and Munchausen by is closing; the impact of playing through a Internet (MBI) where fake sufferers discuss character in first person shooter type games their illnesses via social media (Pulman & means that players can control or act out Taylor, 2012). behaviours. These behaviours can be illegal, Online student discussions have many although Gibbons (2009) proposed that advantages over face-to-face discussions in avatar activity was only illegal if it affected teaching (Taylor, 2002), especially if students real life. Despite this, cognitive, emotional can communicate separated by space or and behavioural components of morality time (i.e. asynchronously). For example, are observed in video games: players make Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 1, 2017 57 Jacqui Taylor, John McAlaney, Sarah Muir & Terri Cole moral choices, act out behaviours, and are safe examples plus more extreme examples emotionally involved with a character. As of each of these traits. we will see later in section 2.3, although Teaching and learning of this topic took there are many laws which students need place through a guest lecture on a first year to know about regarding what is wrong or unit ‘Current Issues in Psychology’. Before right online, there are not many things that teaching began, the following text was are ethically questionable that are not illegal inserted on the first slide of the presenta- (and possibly vice versa!). tion uploaded 48 hours prior to the lecture warning of the material to be covered: 2.2 Exploring the impacts of the internet on individuals ‘Cyberbullying/harassment may be a sensi- In this section we discuss the impacts of tive issue for some of you (around one in the internet on individuals and highlight four people have personally experienced it). where we help to warn and protect students Many sources of support are discussed within who may have experienced some of these the lecture and should you need to discuss effects. We cover the topics of cyberbullying, your feelings or concerns with somebody please cyber-harassment, trolling, online health contact these sources.’ and sexual behaviour. The lecture covered real cases (the case of a 2.2.1 Cyberbullying, cyber-harassment teenager Izzy Dicks who committed suicide and trolling after cyberbullying) and the effects on both Cyberbullying involves the use of mobile the victim and their family and friends. Natu- phones, computers, social networks and rally this covers issues such as suicide and self- other forms of digital technology to repeat- harm which needs to be handled sensitively. edly and intentionally intimidate, humiliate, At the end of the lecture, students were once tease or upset a young person. The cyber- again provided with sources of support. bully is usually invisible or anonymous and the impacts can be different from traditional 2.2.2 Online health bullying as it reaches a far greater audi- Although online health websites are widely ence, involves more people and can occur available, there are many issues of concern 24 hours per day and is therefore hard to such as: inaccurate or irrelevant information; get away from. Cyber-victims are less likely lack of interactivity; and potential harm due to report bullying or seek help than tradi- to the ease of students to stumble across sites tional victims. Cyber-harassment (often in with negative intentions (Kanuga & Rosen- the form of trolling) involves adults, rather feld, 2004). Teaching and learning of this than children, and is motivated by a desire topic took place through lectures and semi- to control, intimidate or influence another. nars on the third year ‘Health Psychology’ According to Buckels, Trapnell and Paulhus and ‘Cyberpsychology’ units. A number of (2014), trolling is ‘the practice of behaving health topics are covered (e.g. online addic- in a deceptive, destructive, or disruptive tion, gender identity, sexually transmitted manner in a social setting on the Internet, disease), but space precludes a full discus- for no purpose other than their pleasure’. sion of all these and instead we focus on the Buckels et al. (2014) relate three psycho- issue of eating disorders. logical traits to those who partake in trolling Pro-anorexia is a good example for demon- (sadism, psychopathy, narcissm) and it is strating the principles of online communities possible that when students research these as they involve a number of people engaging traits (especially sadism) they will come in ongoing interaction and relationships with across unpleasant images. It is useful to others who share a passionate belief about provide students with examples to illustrate a topic (Kim, 2000). They also provide a 58 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 1, 2017 Teaching sensitive issues in cyberpsychology good topic for students to engage in healthy UK and international legislation and then debate. Csipke and Horne (2007) report that explored educational moves to protect chil- media representations of pro-anorexia are dren. This led to wider discussions about the sensationalising and are often a key motivator growing trade in indecent child images from for people to visit the sites. Thus, the first adults and also the exchange between chil- part of the lecture includes a critical evalua- dren in the form of sexting. tion of the discourses conveyed in the media An area of teaching which required and highlight the inaccuracies conveyed (i.e. specific consideration regarding this topic that the websites do not give people eating was in relation to supervision of final year disorders or try to ‘recruit’ anorexics!). We projects. Obviously the majority of students then focus on a reason that people use pro- wish to complete projects that are of anorexia websites, i.e. as a way of communi- particular interest to them and these can cating with others who also see their eating involve sensitive topics; sometimes this disorder as a coping mechanism or playing interest stems from personal involvement some other functional role (Williams & Reid, or victimisation, for example in relation to 2007) and as a ‘safe’ sanctuary for those sexting behaviour or revenge pornography. working through ambivalent feelings about Whilst not wanting to dampen enthusiasm their eating disorder whilst being encour- for research topics of interest, staff were aged to recover if this is what they want to reminded of their duty of care for students. do (Brotsky & Giles, 2007). Throughout the As such open and honest communication is lecture no names of communities are given, essential, within an environment of profes- images are censored or left out and links for sional collaboration and sharing where all resources for support are given at the end. factors which may impact the study (and However, we believe that by focusing on the any disagreements or misunderstandings) research evidence relating to pro-anorexia, are openly discussed. In particular students rather than the media’s representation (and were explicitly asked if there was anything the quelling some of the myths in the process) supervisor should be made aware of in their the topic is covered in a much safer way. More personal background which may affect their generally, when covering the topic of eating considerations. It can be explained to the disorders we are mindful that students may be student that whilst we do not want to restrict experiencing an eating disorder themselves research interests, their aim is to learn to or know or suspect peers or friends who are become objective scientists and as such suffering; again we provide many sources of any potential bias/preconceptions should support involving face-to-face, telephone and be explicitly articulated. In addition giving websites. students different options is suggested – they can talk to the supervisor or others, consider 2.2.3 Sexual behaviour an alternate project, amend the current one, Teaching and learning of this topic took place code data in the presence of the supervisor, during the third year ‘Forensic Psychology’ have more frequent supervision. Joint deci- and ‘Cyberpsychology’ units. A number of sion making should be encouraged where sensitive issues are covered including the rela- possible. Personal reflections can be used by tionship between sex offending and online means of example to demonstrate the vulner- porn, sexting, revenge porn and online ability of all involved in such research, e.g. misogynistic communications. To support ‘with me one day it was something innocuous – a one lecture, a film showing psychological victim had the same birthday as a good friend – it techniques for grooming was followed by really upset me and got me thinking.’ These can students discussing the dangers that young be used to highlight that such feelings and people may be exposed to when using the empathy are normal, but the student needs internet. Students were asked to consider to be reminded that they must discuss situa- Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 1, 2017 59 Jacqui Taylor, John McAlaney, Sarah Muir & Terri Cole tions if they occur. Such projects also require been suggested that some targeted organisa- an enhanced level of guidance in relation to tions have aggressively pursued legal action specific ethical considerations – for example against any individuals (many of whom are ensuring all participants are adult by utilising college students) who are involved in any university populations and considering way in these activities (Olson, 2012). conducting pen and paper surveys, rather Teaching this topic also involves exposing than online questionnaires via social media. students to technologies and activities that they may not be aware of. This includes 2.3 Cybersecurity the dark web, which refers to a part of the Many cybersecurity incidents are based internet than cannot be accessed through around psychological manipulations of well-known browsers such as Chrome or either the gatekeepers of secure systems Internet Explorer. Instead it can only be or the victims directly; one of the most accessed using specific software such as Tor. common examples being phishing emails. When correctly used, this software can be Within the field of computing these tech- used to preserve anonymity in a way that is niques are referred to as social engineering not possible when using other web browsers. which involves the application of psycho- Use of this software is not in itself illegal – logical theory, particularly those from indeed it was developed by the United States social, consumer and cognitive psychology. Naval Research Laboratory and is used by Teaching psychology students about how government agents, journalists and others their skills can be applied to cybersecurity has as a way of communicating securely and some risks. It may involve introducing them secretly (Bartlett, 2014). However, the dark to topics and activities of varying legality web includes a number of sites which include that they themselves may decide they wish highly illegal and potentially distressing to be involved in. This could include clear material, including sales of illicit drugs and cybercriminal activities such as obtaining child pornography. The dark web is not as credit card details, or it may involve behav- user friendly as the surface web and as a iours such as hacktivism, which refers to result there can be little indication of what using online technologies as a form of social a website contains before a link on the dark protest to, for example, disrupt a website. web is opened. An inexperienced user could This latter type of activity may be some- for instance easily and unwittingly open a thing that social science students such as child pornography website. psychology students may be especially likely Teaching and learning of this topic took to decide they wish to engage with. By its place through lectures and seminars on the nature hacktivism often involves a minority third year ‘Cyberpsychology’ unit. To prepare group presenting itself as being in competi- students for this topic the teaching sessions tion with a larger oppressor, whom the hack- begins with a clear and direct explanation tivists typically portray as being unethical in of the risks involved in engaging with the nature. Examples would include multina- behaviours that were to be discussed and tional companies or foreign governments presented. Students were reminded that who may been seen to act in an unethical crimes committed online such as fraud are way. It may be difficult for students to remain treated as seriously as offline crimes. Simi- impartial in these situations. Even if a student larly, examples are given of individuals, specif- only intends to explore this phenomenon ically students, who took part in hacktivism for research purposes they may inadvertently campaigns for ideological reasons (with place themselves at risk. The actions associ- no financial gain) who were subsequently ated with hacktivism are often illegal and, arrested and prosecuted. Nevertheless no whilst the damage contributed by each indi- statement is made to the students about what vidual involved may be relatively low, it has they should or should not be involved in 60 Psychology Teaching Review Vol. 23 No. 1, 2017 Teaching sensitive issues in cyberpsychology online. If a student were to be interested in (Kohlberg & Kramer, 1969), and with this hacking and hacktivism, or indeed is already in mind it is important to consider the age involved in these activities, then a perception and experience of students when covering that the lecturer is attempting to impose their sensitive issues. Gibbs et al. (1992) suggest own value system may alienate the student, undergraduates’ moral development is not particularly given that it has been argued that fully developed; they are still developing people involved in hacktivism are character- an understanding of how moral issues may ized by an anarchistic style (Olson, 2012). relate more generally to societal functioning. Instead, it is emphasised to the students that Third year students may be more interested the onus is them to understand what the in the philosophical debates regarding the risks are and what the consequences of their psychological implications of Internet use actions may be. The dark web is also discussed and may be more open to different perspec- with students, again in a very direct way in tives than first year students, having stronger which the potential risks are highlighted. convictions formed or life experiences to Screenshots of dark web indexes are shown in inform understanding. While first year the lecture to give students an understanding students may just focus on incidences of a of how the technology works, and also what behavior and the legality of certain acts. types of site may be available on the dark It is important to provide health warn- web. The dark web is not itself opened in the ings of what will be covered or discussed lecture, since the nature of it is such that it so that they essentially provide informed can be difficult to predict what content will be consent to attend. Students should be given visible at any one point. options (e.g. to leave the class or to not attend in person). Academics should explain 3.0 Suggestions for consideration by the and discuss teacher’s duty of care and poten- psychology teaching community tial impact on students. Sources of support An environment needs to be created that should be provided before and at the end of allows students to safely reflect on and explore teaching and ideally the option to talk to the their understanding of sensitive issues. In lecturer afterwards. considering the importance of individual’s In summary, it is impossible to provide own behaviour and their understanding of the full protection for students researching implications and consequences of their behav- topics cyberpsychology, but as educators iour, students may experience self-doubts or what we can do is to prepare students and negative self-esteem. In a safe environment, provide guidance and support. We hope that students should feel comfortable to say if some- this article contributes to the discussion and thing is upsetting. It is important to acknowl- suggest that further more formal recommen- edge that students may have been personally dations from the teaching community and victimised which may affect them personally, professional bodies may be helpful. and academically (i.e. not being able to be an objective scientist). It may be helpful for the Jacqui Taylor, John McAlaney, Sarah Muir educator to incorporate their own personal & Terri Cole experience to encourage discussion (e.g. I Dept Psychology, Faculty of Science & Tech- was once upset reading), while being aware of nology, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK. students self-disclosing accidentally and being able to deal with this if it does occur. Correspondence It is important to consider stage of Dr Jacqui Taylor moral development and life experience of Associate Professor Psychology Education, students when presenting sensitive materials. 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