ERIC EJ1146386: Putting Lullabies to Bed: The Effects of Screened Presentations on Lullaby Practices

2016·0.32 MB·English

by  ERIC

aa u s t r a l i a n
s osc i e t y
f o r mmu s ic
Putting lullabies to bed: The effects
e d u c a t i oen
incorporated
of screened presentations on
lullaby practices
Wendy Brooks
Upper Hunter Conservatorium of Music
Abstract
Lullabies have existed since ancient times, and are sung across all most all cultures to soothe babies and lull them
to sleep. As screen media use pervades contemporary familial lives, it is perhaps inevitable that lullabies have
been adopted and adapted as repertoire. This recording of lullabies in audiovisual modes has transformed the
ways in which these songs are learned, transmitted, experienced and used within young children’s lives. As part of
a larger study investigating music and screen media in the lives of young children, this paper reports on evolving
lullaby practices in the lives of Australian children. Using an ethnographic methodology, content and production
of, and responses to, lullabies presented via YouTube, Apps and television have been analysed. Findings indicated
that lullabies presented via YouTube clips and Apps tend to be economically produced, and demonstrate a lack of
understanding of young children’s social and/or developmental needs. Televised lullabies tend to function as signals
for settling, rather than for lulling babies and young children to sleep, and their use plays an increasingly significant
role in families’ everyday routines.
Key words: lullabies, early childhood music education, musical interactions, audiovisual music
Australian Journal of Music Education 2016: 50(2), 83-97
Introduction and theoretical and responses to several pieces of screen media
framework featuring lullabies. In so doing, it addresses the
following questions:
Lullabies are perhaps the best-known genre of
• In what ways are lullabies and their associated
music for infants, and have been traditionally
performance practices altered or transformed
sung by parents and carers to soothe, calm,
through presentations as screened media
and lull babies to sleep, fostering an emotional
content?
closeness, and forming an association between
music, comfort and security (Baker & Mackinlay, • How have screened presentations of lullabies
2006; Mualem & Klein, 2012; Trehub, 2002). As affected musical interactions within families?
screen media have come to play increasingly
The study uses an ethnographic methodology
significant roles in the daily routines and musical
to analyse and describe lullabies presented via
lives of babies and young children, lullabies have
YouTube, Apps1 and television, and considers
been adopted and adapted as screened musical
repertoire. As part of a larger study investigating
1. “Apps” are self-contained programs or pieces of
music and screen media in the lives of young software designed to fulfil a particular purpose; an
children, this paper examines this repertoire application, especially as downloaded by a user to a
through analysis of the content, production mobile device (Oxford Dictionaries, 2013).
Australian Journal of Music Education 83
Brooks
the implications of the ways in which babies length, with a slow tempo, and a limited pitch
and young children experience and respond range. The simple, repeated melodies are sung
to these presentations through a sociology of freely, and often semi-improvised, using a soft
childhood lens. In so doing, it recognises children voice, and have been described as “soothing,
as active agents in the construction of knowledge smooth and airy” (Rock, Trainor & Addison, 1999,
and meaning, and emphasises the currency of p. 532). They often feature descending melodic
children’s being within the social category of lines, portamento effects, and sometimes a
childhood (Morrow, 2011). stylised representation of sighing or weeping.
As young children interact, play and negotiate, They include humming and syllabic vocables
they process and interpret the experiences and as well as words, and sometimes include the
objects with which they are involved. Young baby’s name or terms of affection (Trehub &
children’s daily routines and practices, together Trainor, 1998). However, Rock, Trainor and
with their reciprocal interactions and negotiations, Addison note that infants’ reactions may be
form the raw materials for their social participation influenced by familiarity with musical styles and
and their developing conceptualisations and differing individual temperaments, negating the
understandings of the world around them application of universal features to lullabies, and
(Kampmann, 2014). Their familial routines, which indicating that babies might exercise selective
increasingly incorporate screen media use, provide agency through the responses proffered to
a framework within which family members can lullaby singing.
interpret, produce and display sociocultural A baby’s reception of a lullaby usually
knowledge. Although viewing and engaging incorporates hearing the mother’s voice while
with mediated lullabies constitutes a musical feeling its vibration as the head rests on the
experience in itself, many children integrate these mother’s chest; smelling the familiar scent of the
experiences into their broader everyday musical body; and stimulation of the vestibular system
lives in processes of interpretive reproduction through rocking, bouncing or spinning. Young
and ensuing social construction. As part of these (1995) terms this “multi-sensorial and multi-
processes, experiences with mediated traditional dimensional, involving perception through all
repertoire may be viewed as “cultural rehearsal” body faculties” (p. 51).
(Burn, 2014, p. 14), whereby cultural texts such as These performances, characterised by“music-
mediated presentations function by representing like” qualities within the vocalisations, in
“a world through which viewers can participate combination with “dance-like” gestures and
in practices of identification similar to practices facial movement,have been described as
in which they might engage in their daily lives” “communicative musicality” (Malloch et al., 2012,
(Boessen, 2006, p.137). p.2), and found to both facilitate and promote
multimodal interactions and communication
Related literature between mothers and their babies (Creighton,
Atherton and Kitamura, 2013). Malloch et al.,
Lullabies have been described as “intimate, aural (2012) also note the critical importance of these
communications between caregivers and infants” sensitive, musical interactions on the baby’s social,
(Unyk, Trehub, Trainor & Schellenberg, 1992, emotional, and cognitive development. Similarly,
p.16). Although lullabies exhibit variety in stylistic Levinowitz and Adalist-Estrin, (2000) posit that
features, particularly cross- culturally, Trehub and musical interactions between parents or caregivers
Trainor (1998) identify several similarities that and infants contribute to the provision of sensory
result from the intended audience and function stimulation; rich language and music experiences;
of the songs. Lullabies are typically short in the opportunity for the infant to practise imitation
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and skill mastery; and memories of music as a consented to participate. These families all had
positive source of nurturance. Together with Ilari some association with a local school at which
(2005), these authors also assert that it is essential I was employed. This was significant, since my
for music educators to understand the impact that presence in their homes for data collection
these musical interactions have on children’s music required an element of trust which was facilitated
learning, as the adults act as both transmitters through this association. Purposive sampling was
of musical culture, and as practice partners of also used in the recruitment of two composers of
children’s learned musical signs (Adachi, 1994). screened lullabies, each of whom was identified
Young (2003) suggests that meaningful musical through analysis of their compositions. Both
development can unfold naturally when parents purposive and theoretical sampling were used in
and caregivers play, talk, sing and dance with the selection of Youtube clips, Apps and televised
their children. Further, adults joining in these lullabies for analysis. While many were selected
interactions often provide motivation for children through searching of sites, others were referred
to communicate, providing the “generative to or discussed by study participants. Searching
potential for expressive, affect-rich, multi-modal/ the YouTube site with the term “lullabies” yielded
multi-media events which are performed across over nine million results. The first 25 resultant
time in space” (Young, 2005, p. 297). clips were analysed. Similarly, searching the
The quality and quantity of everyday musical term “lullabies” yielded over 300 Apps. I selected
interactions with babies and young children have the first ten Apps for iPhone and iPad that were
been greatly modified through the development specifically for babies, were free,2 and had the
and widespread use of modern-day technologies word lullaby included in their titles.
(Kaya & Ozgut, 2016; Sulkin & Brodsky, 2013; Data for the study were collected via
Young & Gillen, 2007).While music-based devices observations of families with young children
have possibly increased the frequency of musical in their home settings, and semi-structured
engagement and activity, there is also concern interviews with parents of these children as well
that they may be used to enhance stimulation as as with two composers of lullabies, each of whom
a substitute for human presence and interactions was commissioned to write lullabies for children’s
with caregivers (Baker & Mackinlay, 2006; Sulkin television. These semi-structured interviews
& Brodsky, 2013; Young, 2008). Trevarthen and allowed for the collection of spontaneous,
Malloch (2002) warn that the special relationship individual narratives from the participants
between mothers and babies can be “lost sight of in response to questions generated through
in a culture that does not value time just ‘hanging theoretical concepts (Galetta, 2013). While
out’ without a particular goal or achievement in pseudonyms have been provided for the families,
mind” (p. 14). the composers’ names have been provided, with
permission, through identification with their
Methodology music.
Ethnographic content analysis of several pieces
This case study, conducted in Sydney, Australia, of screen media featuring lullabies enabled the
between 2012 and 2014, is qualitative in nature. description of phenomena that are embedded
The sample for the study included families within screened presentations, as well as data
with young children, composers of televised
lullabies, and examples of screened lullabies.
2. Although these Apps were free, it is noted that
Purposive sampling was used to invite a number many free Apps (including these) have quite limited
of families with children under the age of six repertoire or features, with more sophisticated or
to participate in the study. Sixteen families extended versions available for purchase.
Australian Journal of Music Education 85
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triangulation. In this study, ethonographic content into daily care and music-making practices. This
analysis involved the reflexive analysis of screened inclusion of mediated lullaby repertoire was
media in a cycle of data collection, analysis and noted by another participant mother, Elaine, who
reconceptualisation. Using this approach, constant stated that
discovery and comparison were used to delineate I’m really glad that I learnt some new lullabies from
categories as well as narrative description. watching TV with Mariah. When she was little, I
only knew Rock-a-bye Baby. Now that I have spent
Discussion so much time watching TV with her, I feel like I have
learnt some new ones to sing with the new baby,
Consistent with traditional western child-
when he arrives (Interview, May 18, 2013).
rearing practices (O’Neill, Trainor & Trehub,
2001), the mothers participating in the study Another mother participating in the focus group
were the primary carers of their children, and interview, Rachel, alluded to the multimodal
also the main performers of lullabies in their nature of lullaby performance as she stated
families. The lullabies they sang were mostly of
I can remember humming the tune to Twinkle
traditional English nursery rhyme repertoire,
Twinkle to Jake when I was up with him at night
and were often part of familial histories, recalled
or he was unsettled. I would get right up close to
from their own childhoods, and conveying
him so our cheeks were touching and it seemed to
specific, emotive messages in processes of
settle him.
communicative musicalty (Custodero, Rebello
Britto & Brooks-Gunn, 2003). Data collected early Together, Rachel and Jake were involved in a
in the study attested that Rock-a-bye Baby was process of cultural rehearsal, taking a song with
the best-known and most widely performed which they were both familiar, and adapting and
lullaby across the participant families. During a reworking its presentation to evoke a desired
focus group interview (March 19, 2012), Maggie response from the baby. Jake’s responses to
stated that her baby, Katie, “always settles when Rachel’s humming and the vibrations on his
I sing Rock-a-bye Baby”. For Katie, familiarity with cheek signalled his preferred mode and style of
both the song and her mother’s singing practice performance, and influenced future performative
contributed to the settling effect of the singing. interactions, thereby displaying his selective
Although Maggie sang the lullaby as part of a agency. Although babies and very young children
personal musical interaction with her baby, she may lack the developmental traits to function
also recounted using mediated presentations entirely independently as social actors, their
within daily care routines: agency is facilitated and evolves through their
Katie has been very fussy with her bottle since she individual responses within communicative
was 8 weeks old. The only way we can get her to processes with their parents. As part of this
drink is to watch The Wiggles Nursery Rhymes DVD process, the parent reads the infant’s signals,
or walk or rock her singing Dr Knickerbocker or and adapts the musical performance until it
Rain, Rain Go Away. stimulates the desired response. As exemplified in
Maggie’s and Rachel’s comments, these messages
As Maggie spoke of Katie’s responses to musical are peculiar to particular mother-baby dyads,
stimuli, there was a lack of distinction between reflecting the mother’s known and rehearsed
her references to mediated and personal repertoire, the ways in which it is shared, and the
presentations within her family’s routines, baby’s individual responses.
evidencing the adoption and integration of During a visit to one family home, I witnessed
mediated presentations of traditional songs two-and-a-half-year-old Amy singing to her
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six-week old baby brother who was lying in a since very few included singing as musical
bassinet in the living area of the home. The words content, even though lullabies are typically sung
“go to sleep, baby” were heard several times by carers as part of personal interactions with
during the improvised song. Other words were babies and young children. Most clips consisted
unrecognisable, or were syllables lacking obvious of well-known pieces such as Brahms’ Lullaby
semantic content. Elements of repetition were or Twinkle, Twinkle Little Star performed by
obvious in this music sharing, which was described electronic sources. Although some clips included
as “quite typical” by the mother. The singing audio of authentic instrumental or orchestral
began and ended quite suddenly, and recurred performances of slow, quiet pieces of music, such
intermittently as the child flitted between playing as the Second Movement of Mozart’s Flute and
with toys, chatting with her mother and me, and Harp Concerto, K 299 (Relax Your Baby, 2014),
watching television (Observation, March 15, 2012). recordings of high art music feature complex
Children’s familial interactions form a basis harmonies, rhythms, dynamic changes and a lack
for their developing social understandings of of predictability, setting them apart stylistically
other people’s needs, feelings and intentions from lullabies (Baker & Mackinlay, 2006).
(Mayall, 2002). Amy’s singing to her baby The visual aspect of the vast majority of clips
brother demonstrated her negotiation of a new consisted of a series of electronic special effects,
relationship, as well as the development of her with bright, moving colours and patterns,
identity as a sister. She was also contributing seemingly unrelated to the music. Other clips
to what Qvortrup (1985, p. 142) referred to as included animated images, or a succession of still
“socially necessary activities” that maintain and images, most commonly toys such as building
advance social orders. Mayall (2002, p. 65) terms blocks and teddy bears. Such images might be
this “family work”, whereby each family member, viewed as representations of early childhood
despite age, contributes to the socialisation of that have been socially constructed and widely
the family through socially useful and necessary distributed across various media over many years.
things, thereby participating in and building and Their inclusion in screen media presentations
promoting social relations (Mayall, 2012). Amy provides an associative link that may aid in
had observed both her mother and grandmother making the media appear to be suitable for young
singing to her baby brother, and interpreted these audiences.
musical practices, before reproducing her own The titles of most clips in the first few pages of
manner of helping with the care of the baby. search results included a highlighted number
indicating the length of time the clip would run,
Lullabies on YouTube implying value in a clip lasting several hours, and
possibly connoting that a baby would sleep or be
YouTube, the world’s most prominent video- amused for this length of time, for example, “ 4
sharing web site, was founded in 2005 and HOURS  Lullabies for Babies – Brahms Lullaby –
has grown exponentially in popularity and use Music for Babies – Lullabies for Children” (Lullaby
since that time. YouTube is classified as a social World, 2013a). This would seem to discourage
networking site because users can share and view personal interactions with the child.
videos, as well as comment on the work of others The babyrelaxchannel (Baby Relax Channel,
(Haridakis & Hanson, 2009; Jones & Cuthrell, 2013), boasting more than 50 clips, contains
2011; Molyneux, O’Donnell, Gibson & Singer, many unsubstantiated claims relating to the use
2008). Searching the YouTube website with the of music with children, such as “after listening to
term “lullabies” yielded hundreds of results. Clips classical music, children can do certain spatial
were surprising in content and presentation, tasks more quickly, such as putting together a
Australian Journal of Music Education 87
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jigsaw puzzle” (Baby Relax Channel, 2013). This and will also be dependent upon the ways in
claim demonstrates the ways in which producers which they conceive of their imagined audiences.
manipulate commonly held beliefs derived from Motivation for disseminating such a clip on a
empirical research to promote their products, in global site like YouTube may also vary between
this case, parents’ acceptance of popular media’s users. Channels such as babyrelaxchannel stand
reporting of the highly publicised “Mozart Effect”3 to profit financially from advertising featured on
(for example Winterman, 2005). In explaining their video clips, while individual contributors
social representation theory, Bangerter and Heath may be motivated by social aspects such as an
(2004) contend that theories’ such as the ‘Mozart interpersonal desire for inclusion, affection and
Effect’ are diffused and evolved to meet the control (Haridakis & Hanson, 2009). The capacity
needs of social groups, in this case the promise of to track views of the clip, as is enabled by YouTube,
the intellectual development of children. Social and to read viewer’s comments or even discuss the
representation theory “links society and individual, clip with viewers, may add to the satisfaction of
media and public” (Höijer, 2011, p.3), as ideas are these contributor desires.
communicated and transformed, and collective As a social networking site, YouTube not only
cognition is generated into what is perceived as provides the infrastructure to facilitate extensive
common sense. These representations then fuel distribution (Croteau, 2007), but also “illustrates
further production and consumption of media. the speed with which social networking
While the babyrelaxchannel uses classical innovations can achieve widespread penetration
music to accompany videos featuring endless and utility” (Haridakis & Hanson, 2009, p. 317). One
visual effects, the audio content of many other clip that I viewed,  2 HOURS  ROCK A BYE BABY
clips primarily consists of electronic pieces, Lullaby – Lullabies for Babies – Music for Children”
offering bland musical expression, supposedly (Lullaby World, 2013c), appeared to be quite
to lull babies to sleep. One such piece from the typical in its usage of electronic sound sources
lullabyworld channel, boasts “ 2 HOURS  Baby and visual special effects, and just ten weeks
Mobile Playing Brahms Lullaby in Real Time – after posting, had been viewed 70,280 times,
Lullabies for Babies”(Lullaby World, 2013b). This confirming the site’s wide usage.
clip has looped audio and video of a rotating As part of the participatory culture encouraged
mechanical mobile, as might be viewed by a baby by and through the site, account holders are
lying in a cot. The quality of the clip’s definition able to post comments about YouTube video
and the unsteadiness of the image suggest that clips, providing feedback to contributors, and
it has been filmed and produced by an amateur, thereby exerting some power over the potential
rather than professional, cameraman. One might success of the clip. YouTube contributors who
question the reasons for filming such an event, interact with their audiences are more likely to
or indeed for assuming that an Internet audience retain subscribers to their clips and gain more
might be interested in viewing it. This reasoning views (Chau, 2010). Posted comments are crucial
may be influenced or limited by the producers’ to the operation of the YouTube community
own experiences or conceptions of lullabies, and site (Haridakis & Hanson, 2009). Subscribers
can offer feedback in the form of a simple click
3. A paper by Rauscher, Shaw and Ky (1993) proposed to ‘like’ () or ‘dislike’ () the clip, or may leave
that college students showed significantly better
written comments. Berg (2012) claims that
spatial reasoning skills after listening to Mozart’s
sonata for two pianos (K448) for 10 minutes, than within social media sites, boundaries become
after listening to relaxation instructions designed blurred between those who speak and those
to lower blood pressure, or to silence. This became who listen, and between those who perceive
known as the “Mozart Effect”.
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Lullabies and visual screening
and what is perceived. She claims that issues This aspect of YouTube usage may be viewed
such as conformity, social desirability, reciprocity, as being the reciprocal use of media to satisfy
and anticipated impact can influence individual interpersonal needs, and the use of interpersonal
audience members’ comments and responses. communication to satisfy media-related needs
These processes of interpersonal communication (Haridakis & Hanson, 2009). Through these
and participatory discourse contribute to ongoing mediated interactions, YouTube audiences satisfy
social constructions, determining belief content contributors’ needs for attention and control,
and structures, as is acknowledged in social thereby fuelling further video production, as
representation theory (Höijer, 2011). Consequently, well as influencing viewing choices and musical
YouTube holds potential to influence and experiences of fellow audience members. It
transform presentation and perception of is therefore concerning that music clips with
traditional modes of music-making, such as potential to supplant traditional musical
lullabies. interactions between infants and their carers, and
Figure 1 shows a small portion of the comments that promote bland and musically undifferentiated
appearing on the YouTube web page for the clip electronically manipulated repertoire are
mentioned above. Apart from Lullaby World, who disseminated to vast audiences across this popular
posted the clip on the site, contributors’ names medium.
and photo identities have been removed. Those
posting comments include not only parents, Lullaby Apps
but also aunts or uncles, and brothers or sisters,
demonstrating the range of people influencing Lullabies are also presented as Apps for mobile
musical practices and experiences in young devices. The production and use of mobile Apps
children’s lives. continue to rise dramatically as they are adapted
for both smartphones and tablets. Apps incur
Figure 1: Comments from a YouTube page. relatively low costs for development, marketing,
distribution and support, as well as relatively low
capital to begin production. This has resulted in a
huge Apps market with many excellent products
“but where low-price goods of dubious value
abound” (Anthes, 2011, p.16).
I obtained several Apps through a search of
the term “lullabies”, yielding over 300 results. In
order to gain an overview of their claims and
features, I chose the first ten Apps for iPhone and
for iPad that were specifically for babies, were
free4 and had the word lullaby as part of their
titles (see Appendix 1). These Apps, together with
descriptions and claims offered by their producers,
bore several similarities with the Youtube lullabies.
4. Although these Apps were free, it should be
noted that many free Apps (including these) have
quite limited repertoire or features, with more
sophisticated or extended versions available for
  purchase.
Australian Journal of Music Education 89
Brooks
The claims made by the App producers are consequently seeing them even less involved in
often based on parental testimony such as “‘Great! personally preparing the baby for sleep.
Helps our kids – and us – fall asleep’ Catherine J. Although the Apps include the term “lullabies” in
(mother from New York)” as noted on the Baby their titles, several include repertoire that would
Sleep TV App (Concappt media, 2013a). They also be more accurately described as play songs such
allude to educational benefits espoused through as Ten Little Indians and Skip to My Lou. As well as
popular media, for example “Listening to classical including play songs in its repertoire, the Lullabies
music gives your child a sense of psychological Pro Karaoke App (Speedwell eBusiness Solutions,
comfort, and discloses intellectual ability of your 2011) presents energetic versions of lullabies that
child” (Bogatyrev, 2013). This is another example would seem to be stimulating rather than relaxing
of the ways in which exposure to classical music for young listeners. Although this might indicate a
is afforded value for young children through disregard for typical stylistic features of lullabies as
unsubstantiated claims via social representation. purported by Trehub and Trainor (1998), it might
Other Apps also offer dubious solutions, as also be viewed as an acknowledgement of both
exemplified by the statement, “With this wonderful the wide variety of stylistic and performance traits
App, your baby will fall asleep gently and quietly” of lullabies, and the corresponding plurality of
(Concappt media, 2013b). A lack of understanding young children’s responses to these songs.
or regard for the significance of the parent- The extensive availability of lullaby Apps
child interactions inherent in traditional lullaby provides parents with alternative avenues for
performance is also evident through the claim lullaby use. The duplication of several Apps for
that “the controls are so easy to use that a 2 year use across both iPhone and iPad devices extends
old will quickly learn to use this App themselves” potential audience, resulting in economic viability
(Angelsong Creations, 2012), which suggests that of production. Free Apps tend to function as
the child will be selecting and controlling the “teasers”, serving to introduce Apps that must
lullaby recording without parental involvement. be purchased in order to access all features.
Overall, advertising for these Apps was found to be Although several of the mothers in my study
reliant on unsubstantiated claims that appeal to possessed tablets, and all used smartphones, none
parents’ educational aspirations for their children; of them had used Apps with lullabies. “We only
proposes false needs and then offers counterfeit use Apps for the kids if they get something to do
solutions; and fails to acknowledge children’s or something to learn” said Joanna. “I don’t know
developmental abilities and requirements (Brooks, what you would get from a lullaby App. There’s
2014; Buckingham & Scanlon, 2005). not really anything to do, with lullabies, is there?”
Electronic sound sources are the most common (Interview, May 23, 2014).
timbres used on the Apps, possibly since they are
the most economically viable means of producing Televised lullabies
sound tracks. However, the Dreamtime Lullabies
App (Bogatyrev, 2013) uses orchestrated Classics Lullabies recorded on Apps or YouTube clips
as its soundtrack. With the exception of Rockabye are a readily available resource for parents
Baby Plus (Angelsong Creations, 2012), few of the and caregivers, accessible at almost any
Apps include singing. The latter App features an time. Although television scheduling has
unaccompanied adult female singing Rockabye not traditionally accommodated lullaby
Baby, as might be heard during a traditional presentation, extended viewing hours across
performance of lullabies. Several of the Apps are dedicated children’s channels have resulted in
enabled for repeat playing. This feature may mean lullaby presentations being screened at young
that the parent is not required to re-start the App, children’s bedtimes, in timeslots that were more
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Lullabies and visual screening
traditionally reserved for adult news and current A comment on the discussion board on the
affairs programs. These children’s programs Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) website
sometimes incorporate lullaby repertoire, confirmed the adoption of Hoot’s Lullaby into
resulting in the introduction and adoption of family lullaby repertoire via regular viewing (see
new lullabies and associated practices in families’ Figure 2).
night-time routines. These comments indicate the way that young
A study participant who was the father of young children may use mediated music within familial
children told me of his family’s adoption of Hoot’s routines to aid in the construction of social
Lullaby as an important part of their bedtime meaning. Practices such as the nightly co-viewing
routine. Screened nightly on the dedicated of the visual music clip provide a predictable
children’s channel, ABC4Kids, this lullaby became structure, guide behaviour, and support children’s
a shared singing practice for the family during involvement as social agents. The child’s mimetic
the program’s screening each evening. The lullaby ritual of the phrase “See you in the morning –
was also sung by either or both of the parents hoot, hoot!” allows an opportunity for the child
at the children’s bedsides, and usually replaced to rehearse and demonstrate emerging and
traditional lullabies in this family’s evening developing language and memory skills, while
routines (Interview, March 10, 2012). assimilating televised conceptions into his own
The adoption of mediated music into children’s life. Daily utilisation of the lullaby within the
musical experiences has been investigated in night time routine constitutes a regular music
several studies of school-aged children (for experience for the child, while reinforcing the
example, Bishop & Burn, 2013; Marsh, 2008). music’s settling and signalling function, and may
Bishop and Burn (2013, p. 108) propose that provide an emotionally positive experience for the
“once media resources have been absorbed into child when shared with other family members. This
children’s repertoire, they will be passed from sense of routine is supported through the visual
child to child in exactly the way that folkloric aspect of the clip, which incorporates images of
material is transmitted”. In the case of very young characters featured in programs screened across
children, whose relationships usually centre the day on the channel, while reflecting the overall
on family members, these transmissions may mood and lyrics of the song. The effects of these
also occur within the home setting as digitised images as an advertising tool, reminding the child
repertoire is recalled, repeated and rehearsed to watch again tomorrow, cannot be ignored.
away from the screen with siblings and parents. These routines and rituals are unique within
Through these shared musical experiences, family particular families, and reflective of familial
members facilitate children’s developing agencies identity, culture and values (Spagnola & Fiese,
by modelling and responding collaboratively, 2007). For some study participants, Hoot’s Lullaby
scaffolding the use of rehearsal mechanisms. became the families’ sole lullaby experience, while
Figure 2: Discussion board comment. (ABC, 2010).

Australian Journal of Music Education 91
Brooks
for other families the song widened their lullaby This consultation not only acknowledged and
repertoire, and was selected for occasional use. respected their agency and ideas, but was also
Sometimes I choose the bedtime song, and intended to facilitate the composition of a
sometimes the kids do. It’s like a bedtime story, song relevant to their needs and interests. Lior
you know? Sometimes they have a favourite one attended his daughter’s kindergarten class, and
that they ask for all the time, and then we all need asked several children about lullabies, but was
a change. It’s the same with lullabies. (Joanna. disappointed that this only resulted in “clichéd
Interview, May 20, 2013). stuff” that was not suitable for his composition
(Interview, May 7, 2014). This suggests that Lior
The composition of Hoot’s Lullaby was
intended for there to be some difference between
commissioned by the Australian Broadcasting
traditional lullabies and his own composition.
Corporation (ABC) in 2009, after network
Following further research into lullabies using
producers attended a concert featuring Australian
Internet sources, that also failed to provide
singer-songwriter, Lior. Lior was asked to compose
motivation, Lior was finally inspired by a melody
the lullaby as a settling song for children, “not
his wife recalled having been sung by her
to go to sleep with, but time to relax and get
grandmother during her own childhood. A snippet
settled and ready for bed, a time to reflect on the
of this recalled tune became the song’s opening
day” (Interview, May 7, 2014). In this sense, the
melodic theme, demonstrating the long-term
intended musical function of the lullaby is to serve
effect of musical interactions between a parent or
as a signal within viewing routines as they occur
grandparent and a child, since Lior’s wife recalled
within families’ daily routines, rather than to lull
not only this melody from her own childhood, but
the child to sleep. It might serve to signal the end
also its association with her grandmother, and
of children’s daily television viewing, as it did for
with being comforted. In this respect, the melody
two families in my study, or as a signal to physically
served as a tool with which Lior’s wife could
move to the bedroom from the family room, as it
negotiate the distance between her own musical
did for another family.
childhood and her conception of contemporary
Consistent with Corsaro’s (2011) theory of
childhoods.
interpretive reproduction, as children observe,
Although Lior is a professional adult composer
interpret and then respond to these mediated
who was creating a lullaby in an audiovisual
lullabies within their familial routines, they are
format for a specific purpose, the compositional
granted access to shared understandings of
process he described whereby the fragment
belonging within their families. It is with these
of a known melody forms the basis of a new
shared understandings that children construct
song, bears some resemblance to processes of
meaning. These routines also provide frames
appropriation and transformation described in
within which young children might contribute
ethnographies of children’s playground songs
to or participate in reinventions or reproductions
and games (Marsh, 2008; Bishop, 2014), and
of the cultural practices that surround and
highlights the ways in which children’s songs may
encompass their lives. In so doing, they are
be transformed and disseminated across time and
integrating screened content, repertoire and
geographical space. Lior’s composition might also
performances into their own everyday, familial
be viewed as constituting an early stage of what
cultures.
Marsh (2008, p. 185) terms “cycles of appropriation
Lior outlined several influences on the lullaby’s
and reappropriation” through the “conscious
composition. Provided with only a short time
borrowing” (Marsh, 2006, p. 18) of the melodic
frame by the ABC producers, he first sought
fragment. These cycles of appropriation involve
inspiration for lyrics from his two young children.
92 50(2) 2016