ERIC EJ1140852: The Effects of a Cross-Age Peer Mentoring Program on School Connectedness with Rural Populations

2016·0.09 MB·English

by  ERIC

The Effects of a Cross-age Peer Mentoring Program on School
Connectedness with Rural Populations
Sarah Elizabeth Cravey Kraus, Ed.S
Emanuel County Schools
[email protected]
Richard E. Cleveland, Ph.D
Georgia Southern University
[email protected]
Abstract events (e.g., pregnancy, unemployment,
School-based mentoring continues trauma) as well as salient indicators that, if
to attract both attention and criticism noticed by schools, faculty, administration,
among school leaders and researchers. families, and communities, can potentially
This practitioner-university collaboration ameliorate conditions leading towards
examined mentees’ reported levels of dropping out of high school (Balfanz, 2009;
school connectedness after a nine-week Neild, Balfanz, & Herzog, 2007). Research
cross-age mentoring intervention. This exploring such indicators crucial for high
study of 47 mentees attending a rural, school completion has identified factors
low socioeconomic status (100% FRL) such as course completion, discipline,
school investigated participants’ school and attendance (Allensworth & Easton,
connectedness scores. Global school 2005; Heppen & Bowles Theirralt, 2007;
connectedness mean scores increased Neild et al., 2007). In their exploration of
for all participants. Participants in the predictors of high school dropout MacIver
experimental group demonstrated and MacIver (2009) recognize common
statistically significant increases on the “ABC” (i.e., absenteeism, behavior
“Self-in-Future” subscale. problems, and course failures) factors,
but turn the discussion of high school
The Effects of a Cross Age Peer dropout prevention towards addressing
Mentoring Program on School student disengagement or, student-school
Connectedness with Rural disconnectedness.
Populations
In the United States, high school dropout According to Karcher, Davis, and Powell
rates continue to be a formidable concern, (2002), poor attendance, behavior
with some characterizing the problem problems, and low course completion
as a national crisis (Heppen & Bowles are increasingly viewed as products
Therrialt, 2008). A review of the literature of student disconnectedness to/from
recognizes the role of significant life school, teachers, peers, and parents. One
26 | 2016 Georgia School Counselor Association
response to this crisis of disconnection furthering the CAMP research base (i.e.,
has been to develop programs that with rural populations), the researchers
promote students’ sense of belonging and hoped the intervention would have a
keep them connected during periods of significant positive effect on school
transition. Specifically, such programs often connectedness for participating students.
target early middle grades for building a
sense of school connectedness in hopes Definition of School Connectedness
such efforts will begin to have the most Karcher, Holcomb, and Zambrano
significant effect on continued student (2006) define connectedness as being a
performance, attendance, behavior, and “movement towards others through positive
(ultimately) graduation. Karcher’s (2008a) affect and activity” (p. 2). Karcher et al.
cross-age mentoring program (CAMP) further describe it as “a student’s response
specifically addresses increasing school to feelings of relatedness and belonging
connectedness among students at risk . . . reflect[ing] adolescents’ perception
of dropping out. The program facilitates of their own involvement in and affection
high school students mentoring younger for others, activities, and organizations”
(e.g., middle school) students. The CAMP (p. 2-3). This feeling of connection and
program has demonstrated positive effects association creates a sense of belonging
for mentees as well as for mentors, for adolescents (as well as other ages
including increased student leadership, within PK-12) with school being one of the
collaboration skills, student connectedness, most important organizations with which to
self-esteem, and academic achievement be involved and associated (Karcher et al.,
(Karcher, 2008a; 2008b; 2009). 2006; Karcher, 2007).
Despite the benefits of mentoring Catalano, Haggerty, Oesterle, Fleming,
interventions, educational leaders and Hawkins (2004) use the term “school
and administrators may be hesitant to bonding” for this condition of being
dedicate requisite time and resources to connected to school, and include two
such programs noting scant statistically elements in their definition: attachment
significant findings for whole samples and commitment. Attachment is described
(Bernstein et al., 2009). However, as by the degree of affective relationships
Grossman, Chan, Schwartz, & Rhodes with others at school, while commitment is
(2012) point out, secondary analyses characterized by personal investment. This
of such data often reveal noteworthy personal investment is two-fold, pertaining
variability underscoring the importance to both school (e.g., the school as entity)
of continuing research exploring different and doing well in school (e.g., experienced
subgroup populations (i.e., youth success in academic, personal/social,
subgroups). college/career-readiness, and/or other
domains). Thompson, Iachan, Overpeck,
The current study sought to examine Ross, and Gross (2006) identified indicators
student connectedness using a modified of school connectedness including: a sense
version of the CAMP program (Karcher, of belonging at school, active engagement
2008a). Participants were seventh grade in school activities, and maintaining
students from a small middle/high school positive relationships with others. Finally,
in rural southeast Georgia. In addition to the Centers for Disease Control and
Georgia School Counselor Association 2016 | 27
Prevention (CDC, 2009) describe school connectedness, suggesting that youth
connectedness as the “belief by students actively connected with school were less
that adults and peers in the school care likely to engage in substance abuse, violent
about their learning as well as about them behavior, and other activities resulting in
as individuals” (p. 3). negative developmental consequences.
Developmental mentoring programs are
Thus for the purposes of this study, one approach that have been successfully
a working definition of “school employed to increase students’ school
connectedness” would be comprised of connectedness (Karcher, 2008b; Karcher et
both intra- and inter-personal components. al., 2002).
Intra-personal aspects would include
students’ perceptions of relation, Cross-age Mentoring Programs
belonging, and commitment to both the Karcher (2007; 2008a) defined “cross-
school as an entity and the process of age mentoring” as any school-based
schooling (i.e., engaging in educational mentoring program that involved pairing
duties and responsibilities). Inter-personal older students (typically high school age)
aspects would address the degree to which with younger students (typically seventh
students exhibit action towards establishing grade and under). Cross-age mentoring
and maintaining relationships with others in programs have reported positive results
the school (e.g., peers, faculty, staff, etc.). both intra-personally as well as outwards
action exhibited (inter-personally). These
The Effects of Student School results included increased positive learning
Connectedness experiences, positive attitude towards
A review of the literature suggests healthy school, connections with peers, sense of
effects associated with positive school agency, as well as improved attendance,
connectedness (Catalano et al., 2004; academic skills, and statistically significant
King, Vidourek, Davis, & McClellan, 2002), reductions in disciplinary referrals
as well as school connectedness serving (Converse & Lignurgaris/Kraft, 2009; Dopp
as a protective factor against negative & Block, 2004; Karcher et al., 2002; 2009;
developmental outcomes (Whitlock, King et al., 2002; Willis, Bland, Manka &
2006). The CDC (2009) found school Craft, 2012). These results all fit within the
connectedness “to be the strongest working definition of school connectedness
protective factor for promoting positive as previously defined.
academic and nonacademic outcomes for
youth” (p. 3). Resnick et al. (1997) found Research Question
that young people who reported feeling This study was guided by the following
connected to their school were less likely to research question: What differences in
engage in many risky behaviors. school connectedness exist between
groups of middle school students when a
Similarly, multiple studies have detailed cross-age peer mentoring program has
positive benefits associated with increasing been applied? Anecdotally, the researchers
students’ school connectedness (Gordon, were interested in the feasibility of
Downey, & Bangert, 2013; Karcher 2003; implementing a cross-age mentoring
2005; 2008a). Karcher et al. (2006) noted program within a rural school district.
positive outcomes from increased school
28 | 2016 Georgia School Counselor Association
Methodology Participants group receiving the intervention following
Participants for this study were seventh the study. It should be noted that the other
grade (mentee) and high school (mentor) two homerooms not participating in this
students in a middle/high school in rural study also received the intervention after
southeastern Georgia. The school provides the conclusion of the study.
instruction for students in grades sixth
through twelfth, with a total population of Instrumentation
approximately 600 students (47% female The researchers used the Hemingway:
and 53% male). The racial composition Measure of Adolescent Connectedness
of the school consisted of 62.1% Survey (MAC) Adolescent Version 5.5:
Caucasian, 35.7 % African American, Grades 6–12 Short form (Karcher, 2001)
0.2% Multiracial, 1.5% Hispanic, and 0.5% to collect data regarding students’ self-
Asian students. Within public education, reported perceptions of connectedness.
the free or reduced lunch (FRL) statistic is The instrument was administered to
often used as an approximate indicator of participants both before and after the
student socioeconomic status (SES). For cross-age peer mentoring program.
this study, 100% of students attending As noted in Gordon et al. (2013), the
the school were eligible to receive free or Hemingway was designed to measure
reduced lunch, reflecting high levels of student perceptions of connectedness
economic disadvantage. Two of the four to four important adolescent worlds:
seventh grade homerooms in the school Self, Family, School, and Friends. The
were the focus of this study, with selected Hemingway is a 40 item self-report
high school students serving as mentors. survey that measures the degree to which
The treatment group was made up of the adolescents care for and are involved
homeroom assigned the intervention of a in particular relationships and activities.
cross-age peer mentor (n = 28), and the The survey has 10 sub-scales, rated on a
waitlist control group consisted of one of 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1
the other seventh grade homerooms (n = (not at all true), to 5 (very true). This study
19). looked at the six subscales Karcher (2003)
related to school connectedness, namely:
Research Design School, Teachers, Peers, Culturally Different
This study used a quasi-experimental Peers, Reading, and Self in the Future. The
design to examine the effects of a Hemingway has demonstrated test-retest
cross-age peer mentoring program on reliability ranging from .69 to .91 (Gordon
participants’ reported level of school et al., 2013), and is characterized as
connectedness. The study received full displaying adequate internal consistency
institutional IRB approval. All participants (Karcher, 2003; Karcher et al., 2008).
completed the Hemingway: Measure of Karcher (2001) confirmed the 10 construct
Adolescent Connectedness (MAC) survey. factor structure with subscale Cronbach
One seventh grade homeroom was alphas ranging from weak to strong (i.e., r
assigned to receive the intervention of a = .60 to r = .94).
cross-age peer mentor, and participated
in assigned peer mentoring activities for Procedures
nine weeks. The other seventh grade After verifying school administration
homeroom served as a waitlist control interest, institutional IRB approval was
Georgia School Counselor Association 2016 | 29
secured. Next, school counselors had Data Analysis
permission forms sent home with each Data analyses included a review of
potential participant. Individual participant descriptive statistics assessing the
surveys received identification markers normality of the data set and group mean
to maintain confidentiality while aiding scores. All statistical calculations and tests
the researchers in tracking participants’ were conducted at alpha = 0.05.
data. CAMP intervention activities
facilitated by school counselors addressed Result
connectedness to school, teachers, peers, Preliminary analyses began with a review of
culturally different peers, reading, self the descriptive statistics for all Hemingway
in the future, attendance, behavior, and items. First, mean, median, mode, standard
grades. These activities took place during deviation, skewness, and kurtosis statistics
the middle school exploratory period. for each item on the Hemingway were
Weekly classroom activities included an reviewed, considering both pre- and
icebreaker, a school connectedness lesson, post-test administrations. Histograms
snack, and a group activity. This format had for each Hemingway item (again, both
mentors and mentees working in pairs, pre- and post-test administrations) were
but also engaging as a part of a larger then consulted. Results of this analysis
group towards the end of the class period. indicated that while some items displayed
The connectedness to peers, friends, skewness or kurtosis slightly beyond
family, self, parents, school, and reading general expectations, none were beyond
curriculum was developed to include peer reasonable limits (Field, 2009; Gall, Gall,
mentor activities to promote connectedness & Borg, 2007; Tabachnick & Fidell, 2012).
(Karcher, 2008a). Cross-age peer mentors The researchers determined that the data
received training and followed a structured met the assumption of normality.
list of mentoring activities at each meeting
once a week. Students met with their Next, the reliability of the dataset was
mentor for nine weeks, once a week. assessed using Cronbach’s Alpha.
Reliability values for pre-test data are
Upon completion of the intervention, presented in Table 1 and post-test data in
participants completed the Hemingway Table 2. Pre-test scores demonstrated low
again. Pre- and post-test data were reliability for “School” and “Self-in-Future,”
compared after the intervention in order while scores for “Teachers,” “Reading,” and
to compare the effects the cross-age “Peers” demonstrated moderate reliability.
peer mentoring program had on school Post-test scores for “School,” “Peers,”
connectedness. The independent variable and “Self-in-Future” demonstrated low
was defined as students’ participating reliability, while “Teachers” and “Reading”
in mentoring/non-mentoring groups. scores demonstrated moderate reliability.
The dependent variable was school Overall, Hemingway global scores for both
connectedness (MAC). Both treatment and pre- (α = .763) and post-test (α = .852)
control groups completed the Hemingway, demonstrated moderate to high reliability
before and following the cross-age peer (Field, 2009). Most Hemingway subscales
mentoring period. demonstrated moderate reliability with
some demonstrating low reliability.
30 | 2016 Georgia School Counselor Association
Descriptive statistics for the Hemingway, increases were not statistically significant.
both global and subscales, were reviewed
and are presented in Table 3. Overall, This study uniquely contributes to
both global and subscale mean scores mentoring literature in that while previous
continued to meet the assumption of studies have called for specific attention to
normality. Additionally, mean scores student populations facing developmental
increased between pre- and post-test challenges and/or negative developmental
administrations in both intervention consequences (e.g., “at-risk” youth), few
(mentoring) and waitlist (non-mentoring) have reported samples with comparable
groups. socieo-economic levels. Specifically, while
some studies with comparable sample
Finally, t-test analyses were used to sizes have reported free or reduced
investigate statistically significant lunch (FRL) levels ranging from 22-43%
differences in means between mentoring (Converse & Lignurgaris/Kraft, 2013;
and non-mentoring groups. While both Gordon et al., 2013), many studies report
groups saw increases in mean differences, only broad family income level (i.e., census
scores for the experimental group were data) common for the geographical region
not statistically significant. The difference in which the study takes place (Karcher,
between mentoring group participants’ 2008b; Karcher & Sass, 2010). Other
pre- and post-test mean scores for “Self- studies report selecting participating
in-Future” subscale score did display a students solely on the basis of “at-risk”
statistically significant value (.008). status as defined by classroom teachers/
staff perception (Karcher, 2005; Karcher,
Davidson, Rhodes, & Hererra, 2010;
Discussion Karcher et al., 2002). In the current
School counselors in this action research study, all participants (regardless of group
study implemented a cross-age mentoring assignment) qualified as below the poverty
program with middle school student line as indicated by the school’s 100% FRL
mentees in a rural, impoverished area of status.
the state of Georgia, United States. Results
from the intervention demonstrated an Interestingly, participants in the
increase in school connectedness mean experimental (mentoring) group
scores as measured by the Hemingway demonstrated statistically significant
MAC (Karcher, 2011) for both groups. increased scores on the “Self-in-future”
Surprisingly, while participants receiving subscale. Even though this was the
the intervention (i.e., cross-age peer only statistically significant increase for
mentoring) displayed statistically significant experimental participants, the finding
increases in the “Self-in-Future” subscale, is encouraging. In their study of 638
increases in overall global MAC scores impoverished African-American youth
were not statistically significant. These (mean age = 15.85, SD = 1.42), So,
results are consistent with previous studies Voisin, Burnside, and Gaylord-Harden
where participants in cross-age peer (2016) found student future orientation
mentoring programs experienced increases associated with more positive school
in various aspects of school connectedness connectedness. Specifically, after
(Karcher et al., 2002) even when such controlling for gender, SES, and age, higher
Georgia School Counselor Association 2016 | 31
levels of participants’ future orientation of participants is similar to other
was positively correlated with increased investigations of mentoring programs in the
student-teacher connection. school setting, (Karcher, Davis, & Powell,
2002; Converse & Lignurgaris/Kraft, 2013)
It should be noted that although results a larger sample size might prove more
for the experimental group were found to beneficial for future investigations. Further
be non-significant, the increase in school study is necessary replicating both site and
connectedness (i.e., global MAC scores) population demographics.
was valued by school site administration.
Starting in the 2014 academic year, While this study utilized a nine
annual state evaluation measures for week mentoring intervention, school
public schools required the inclusion of connectedness interventions in the
data pertaining to school climate. The literature range in duration from 18
resulting expectation is that schools not weeks to spanning the entire academic
only report such data, but are actively year (Converse & Lignurgaris/Kraft,
engaged in interventions addressing 2013; Karcher, 2005; Karcher, 2008b;
school climate. Towards that end, the Karcher, et al., 2010). Future research
current study was considered successful might benefit from employing longer
in two regards. First, it aided site school duration interventions, gathering multiple
counselors in providing a research-based data points throughout the academic
intervention targeting school climate via year. Such data might provide a more
school connectedness. This action postured comprehensive picture of students’ levels
school counselors within pertinent school of school connectedness as influenced
improvement activities and clearly aligns by the continued intervention as well as
with the call for increased evidence-based environmental changes experienced across
school counseling practices (American systemic levels (e.g., individual, classroom,
School Counselor Association, 2012; whole school) throughout the school year.
Erford, 2015). Secondly, and arguably
more importantly to site administration, Logistical challenges of the middle school
participants in both groups demonstrated environment also proved challenging. The
increased school connectedness (i.e., original design of the study aimed to also
global MAC scores). Again, the researchers review participants’ attendance, discipline
fully acknowledge that such increases in and English and Language Arts (ELA)
the experimental (mentoring) group were grades. However, complications midway
non-significant and such information through the research project resulted in
was presented to administration as well. a sole focus on school connectedness.
However, in terms of state required school Similarly, competing school initiatives
improvement reporting, these findings were exerted influence over the execution of the
considered beneficial on a practical level. research project. During the third week
of the intervention, school administration
Limitations & Recommendations required all students who had previously
Limitations of this study include small failed a state mathematics exam to attend
sample size, duration of intervention, mathematics remediation tutoring during
and logistical challenges of the PK-12 the exploratory period (time during which
school environment. While the number the intervention occurred). Similarly, despite
32 | 2016 Georgia School Counselor Association
securing both participant and parent students. The purpose of this study
consent, participants involved in one of the was to investigate the effects of school
school’s athletic teams were not allowed to counselors applying a cross-age peer
participate as the exploratory period was mentoring program to impoverished
reserved for weight training. (i.e., 100% FRL) students in the rural
southeastern United States. Specifically,
These logistical challenges and their this study investigated individual students’
consequences (e.g., the previous limitation levels of school connectedness. While
of small sample size) are representative of all participants demonstrated increased
the complex nature of conducting research global school connectedness, participants
in the PK-12 school setting. However in the mentoring (experimental) group
school counselors are well positioned demonstrated statistically significant
to aid in conducting such investigations increases in the “Self-in-Future” subscale
within the PK-12 environment through only. This study adds to the literature
collaboration with state school counseling on cross-age mentoring and uniquely
associations and/or university counselor- contributes findings relative to participants
preparation program faculty. Such in impoverished, rural populations.
collaborative endeavors can yield systemic
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