ERIC EJ1136047: Preparation for Transnationalism: Changes in China's Top Secondary Schools

2014·0.5 MB·English

by  ERIC

Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 4 Issue 1 Spring 2014
http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252

Preparation for Transnationalism:
Changes in China’s Top Secondary Schools

June A. Gordon and Xiangyan Liu
University of California, Santa Cruz

This article argues that new international programs within public secondary schools in China represent a
vigorous and legitimatized approach to meeting the demands of newly affluent Chinese families for pre-
collegiate education that equals the best international standards and constitutes preparation for higher
education at the leading universities of the U.S., U.K., Australia, and beyond. From a transnational
perspective, it offers insights into the changes that have taken place within China over the last decade as
well as provides an overview of some of the variation in educational programs and practices as they relate
to the internationalization of secondary education in China.

Keywords. International Education; Internationalization; Transnationalism; Secondary
Education; China

The internationalization of higher from global economic opportunity, rapid
education continues to increase in development of technology, and
importance and complexity as demand for improvements in transportation and
an overseas education by countries with telecommunications (IOM, 2008). It has also
limited higher educational options meets the been affected by economic instability,
needs of American universities to globalize political conflict, family reunification, and
their campuses and fill their coffers as fears of an unknown future or a desire for
investment in public education diminishes what might be perceived as a better one
(Knight 2004; Shin et al. 1999). Emergent (Shields, 2013). International education,
affluence, combined with pressures both once marginalized in the field of educational
local and national to acquire degrees, has set research, has moved closer to the center as
in place a vigorous debate not only on how greater attention is paid to the ways in which
to respond to the diversity of this education continues to be impacted by
international population, but also how to global forces (Dolby & Rahman, 2008).
identify the quality of the students and the However, most of the literature on
schools from which they come. international higher education tends to look
The proliferation of studies on the at either the process of adaptation for the
internationalization of higher education students and the host campus or at methods
reflects the reality of a growing phenomenon of recruitment (Altbach & Knight, 2007).
of global education mobility since the late This article attempts to broaden the
1980s. As part of this phenomenon, discussion towards a more transnational
international student migration has benefited perspective by including both home and host
Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
country factors in deepening our knowledge intention of policymakers to maximize
base. It is our belief that only through options for young people while also
incorporating the historical, cultural and providing venues for skilled workers to gain
economic context of the home country can expertise. While the range of choices allows
we begin to more fully grasp some of the parents an opportunity to assess their child’s
reasons for student migration, the extent of strengths and reconsider an appropriate
their preparation, and the role that the pathway through which their children might
government, educators, and parents have fulfill their potential and dreams, the options
played in this phenomenon. are limited depending on the scores received
While we acknowledge the range of on the high school entrance exam since
students throughout the world studying in academic secondary schools are selective.
preparation for overseas study in a variety of And while the vast majority of parents
settings, this article focuses on programs in worry incessantly about their child’s success
the People’s Republic of China from now on on the exams and their future well-being, the
called China, which for the most part have problem of choice is particularly challenging
as their mission to equip students with the for wealthier families who have the means
academic background as well as social and to consider one more option: education
intellectual skills to survive and thrive as abroad. The reasons behind such a difficult
undergraduates at four-year universities in choice may be due to several factors but two
America. In addition to delineating some of which most often come up in this research
the historical, cultural and economic are 1) the reluctance to force the child to
conditions in China contributing to the undergo the hardships required to succeed in
upsurge of international programs in the competitive examination system, and 2)
secondary education, the authors use data an awareness that the child is not capable of
collected in May and June of 2013 during competing at a high enough level to attend a
visits to sixteen Chinese high schools and top academic secondary school. These
four universities in six cities, covering 2,000 parents, having the ability to pay for study
miles. This research offers insights into the overseas, inadvertently are placed in the
changes that have taken place within China position to send their child away, usually
over the last decade as well as provides an their only child, sometimes at a very early
overview of some of the variation in age for schooling. Public schools in China,
educational programs and practices as they aware of this conundrum have begun to
relate to the internationalization of develop sophisticated international programs
secondary education in China, something to prepare students for an easier transition to
which has been largely ignored in the foreign schools for further study and to
literature of international education. Given increase their revenue base as the additional
that issues surrounding student migration costs are significant.
have mainly been investigated in the context International programs were initially set
of the host country, this article provides an up in the 1990s within a few high schools in
alternative framework offering perspectives major cities, such as Beijing, Shanghaii and
from both the home and host country Shenzhen. Over the past two decades the
context. number of high schools with international
programs across China has dramatically
International programs in Chinese increased and affected the ways in which
secondary education young people are viewing their educational
Current Chinese secondary education is and occupational options. At the same time,
divided into academic secondary education The National Long-term Education Reform
and specialized/vocational/technical and Development Plan (2010-2020)
secondary education (Jiaoyubu [Ministry of implemented by the Ministry of Education
Education], 2004). Variations in types of outlines a plan to improve the variation and
secondary schooling in China reflect the internationalization of secondary education
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
(chapter 4 and chapter 16). The rapid growth understanding of migration history as well
of programs has attracted scholars’ attention, as the implementation of alternative
particularly those in China, which has led to educational programs in secondary
a steady flow of articles (Ding, 2012; Li, education of China.
2003; Wang, 2011), some critically
analyzing the curriculum and program 2. Educational investment
management but others seeking insights into
how new global and transnational identities The dramatic growth of Chinese student
will find a place in the modern Anglo- migration to the United States since the late
American university. 1980s reveals the interrelationship among
economic, cultural, and political capital.
Theoretical framework Most Chinese families use education as an
efficient tool to acquire tangible capital. As
1. Educational desire noted by Xiang and Shen (2009, p. 514),
“The Chinese new rich converted economic
One of the most useful contemporary capital to internationally recognized cultural
frameworks for understanding the increased, capital, which is in turn converted into
if not frenetic, demand for education in political capital that legitimates their newly
China is Kipnis's book, Governing acquired status.” Educational investment in
Educational Desire (2011). While international education, both by the Chinese
acknowledging that educational desire government and individuals, reflect the
reflects universal dilemmas of human desire forces of globalization and the prerequisites
and social status as well as relationships of successfully performing on the
between systems of education and social international stage. Meanwhile on the
hierarchy in all modern societies, Kipnis domestic front, parents, unsure of the
uses as his frame of analysis the interplay changes taking place in China and how their
between local and national pressures, child will be affected by them, grow
policies, and practices in China to lay out his increasingly anxious about an educational
argument. And while the research is drawn system that might undermine future life
from a study of a town in Shandong options. This is particularly true for middle-
Province, it is clearly applicable to larger class and more affluent families who can
contexts, as indicated in his comment, afford alternative educational programs
“desire is a complex phenomenon that geared towards preparation to operate within
influences many other aspects of social a global context. Lee (2000) examines this
relationships inside and outside of China” issue in his book on the history of Chinese
(p. 5). Accordingly, he applies three major education where he points out the various
theoretical concepts: culture, governing, and ways that Chinese families' strategies have
emplacement to discuss the complexity of played an important role in determining the
this phenomenon. While government use of success of an individual’s social
education as a tool for political control is not advancement. Acknowledging the dynamic
unique to China, China does have one of the nature of the social, economic, and political
longest histories of using education as a factors that intertwine with an individual’s
governing strategy. The most pronounced educational success in China will allow
example of this is the infamous Imperial educators as well as educational researchers
Examination System that has been in place to capture more fully the complex picture of
for over a millennium, providing the ruling the internationalization of secondary
elite with a "meritocratic" process of education in China today.
selection. It is this same system, with certain
modifications, that drives educational desire
today in combination with other social
forces and leads to a theoretical
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
3. International education 25.4% of all international students, making
them the largest “group” in American
As noted by Knight (2004), universities (IIE [Institute of International
internationalization tends to be defined as Education] 2012a). While the majority of
the process of integrating an international, Chinese students study at the graduate level,
intercultural or global dimension into the the number of students and parents opting
purpose, functions or delivery of post- for their children to study at the
secondary education. As such, the majority undergraduate level has risen significantly in
of educational research pertaining to the recent years to about 38.4% in the U.S. (IIE
internationalization has focused on higher 2012b). It is safe to say that the combination
education (Zhao & Zhang, 2011). In the late of perceived scholarly and financial rewards
1980s a few scholars began to break with for both Chinese students and overseas
this tradition, including one of the authors of universities, combined with the massive
this article (name suppressed), and started to supply of qualified Chinese high school
focus on the process and impact of graduates, has created an industry of
internationalization on K-12 education. recruitment, English instruction, and
During this period, however, due to limited consultation so complex that families and
access, few scholars were able to examine schools are often at a loss as to how to
how this played out in China (Zhou, 2013) mediate this terrain.
and even fewer attended to secondary And the flow does not just go one way.
education. Over the last decade marked China is now home to hundreds of schools
changes in this trend have been noted as and branch universities created by foreign
scholars in China have critically analyzed English-language institutions attempting to
the challenges and opportunities that meet the intense ‘educational desire’
secondary education faces as it moves accompanying China’s rapidly developing
towards greater inclusion of international urban and affluent population. In addition,
issues and pedagogy (Bo and Li 2011; Zhou some existing Chinese public, (government
2013). Ding (2012) further discusses the supported) schools, acknowledging the need
strengths and weaknesses of these changes to better prepare their students for a global
as well as the role of individual reflection in world, now offer a separate track called an
international programs. Other scholars “international” program for students
focus on a specific program through interested in overseas study. Many of these
conducting case studies in schools (Li, students do not take the Gaokao (The
2003) but there remains very little College Entrance Exam) but rather
investigation which has been examined and participate in a curriculum comparable to
supported by conceptual or theoretical some of the best British or American upper
frameworks (Wang, 2011). secondary schools (high schools). These
international programs are not to be
The Context confused with International Schools. The
latter are private schools set up around the
world to accommodate young peopleii who
From 1978 to 2011, approximately 224
are either not from the country where they
million Chinese left China to study abroad
are now living, or have studied abroad and,
(Jiaoyubu [Ministry of Education] 2012a).
as a result, cannot easily fit into the
In 2011, alone 34 million made the journey
traditional curriculum of their host or home
to enhance their studies and their status with
country. In contrast, any Chinese student
degrees from overseas. More than 75% of
who can pass the entrance exam for the
these students went to the English-speaking
particular high school that offers an
countries of the U.S., the U.K., Australia
international program and then successfully
and Canada, with the U.S. in the lead.
passes the additional exam to enter this
Chinese students from PRC alone comprise
special program can participate, as long as
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
s/he is able to pay the extra fees. This article when India gained top place. Since 2009
focuses on these special programs and how China has resumed its position as top
they are impacting both Chinese and exporter of students to study abroad, in
American education. particular to the United States (IIE, 2012a).
However, this remarkable achievement has
History of student migration from China not been without drawbacks, causing a
to the U.S. frenzy and confusion on both sides of the
ocean. Individual striving for access to
In 1847 three Chinese boys were foreign universities has led to the accusation
brought to the United States to study in that Chinese are far more interested in status
Massachusetts by an American missionary. than education. The term “gold gilding”
As the first Chinese student in the United (dujin) has been coined and is in frequent
States, Yung Wing graduated from Yale use to critique this phenomenon. Its
University in 1854 and returned to China to meaning alludes to the paying of money to
take various positions. After approval by the purchase a label without necessarily
Qing Dynasty government, he organized 130 acquiring new knowledge or skills (Xiang &
Chinese young students to study in the New Shen, 2009).
England region of the United States between
1872-1875. Most students at that time came Contemporary education in China: 1978-
with the objective of attaining a degree or present
degrees from an American college or The post-Mao administration of Deng
university, then return home to become Xiao Ping clearly proclaimed that the
leaders of the new China. Between 1948 and quantitative goals of education must be
1949 about 3,916 students were enrolled in sacrificed for quality (mass primary
colleges and universities abroad; this marks education vs. key schools based on the
the peak of Chinese student enrollment prior Soviet model) with the aim to serve the
to the Communist takeover (Lee 1960)iii. immediate needs of economic development
The “opening-up” policy, implemented (Pepper, 1991). This coincided with the
in 1978, determined the direction of implementation of the “one-child” family
development of Chinese society in the policy, which was viewed as a means to
following decades. The new rationale by accomplish the goals of the “Four
Deng Xiaoping clearly indicated that the key Modernizations” in agriculture, industry,
to modernization lay in science and science and technology, and national
technology and the key to these lay in defense. Most children born in China after
education (Pepper, 1991). The imperative 1979 have benefited from the “one-child”
made plain the urgent need for China to policy. Being raised and protected by more
learn and seek assistance from the West, than six family members, careful
especially the United States, where science consideration was brought to bear on both
and technology were most advanced. With childrearing and education (Davin, 1991).
the completion of the normalization of Sino- Kipnis (2011) goes so far as to claim that the
American relations in 1979, individual birth control policy should be the starting
desire for education was reignited and point for any discussion of educational
combined with governmental desire to catch desire in contemporary China. And while
up with the West. As a result, 10,000 this policy enhanced parental investment in
Chinese academic and technical specialists the education of their children, it also led to
soon found themselves studying in the a generation dominated by their whims.
United States (Fairbank, 1992). Having one’s identity and hopes pegged to a
For the past thirty years China has child’s success can easily lead to excessive
remained the leading sending country to pressure and exaggerated expectations as
U.S. higher education with only a small blip noted in Kipnis’s analysis of Chinese
in the numbers between 2001 and 2008 parents’ desire for a son to become a dragon
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
and a daughter a phoenix (wangzi cities (Beijing, Tianjin, Shenzhen,
chenglongde xinli) (Kipnis, 2011, p. 61). Zhongshan, Suzhou, and Shanghai) in 2013.
The limitation on child births Thirteen of the high schools are Chinese
insured that parents and grandparents would public institutions, all with an additional
compete to position their dragon or phoenix international program that requires
to not only enhance the child’s options but coursework in English for three years. Only
also their parents’ status. Aware of this one school was private and it was a gift from
potential frenzy the government introduced a local man to his community. It is also the
a policy of “quality education” (suzhi only one that is K-12, the remaining are 7-
jiaoyu) aimed to moderate or redirect this 12, which is the definition of “middle
energy and bias toward academic over school” in China. In addition, two
vocational forms of education. However, as “International Schools” were visited. These
demonstrated in the Shandong case study, are radically different institutions with a
rural parents did not value technical different clientele as discussed earlier,
diplomas even if these led to well-paying, mostly children of ex-pats or whose parents
secure jobs and reasonable careers; college are working overseas. In addition to visits to
degrees trumped practical skills (Kipnis, schools, interviews were conducted with
2011). counselors, teachers, principals, and parents,
Around the same time, facing pressure as well as various groups of students ranging
from reformists the Central Committee of in size from 2 to 300. English and Mandarin
the Chinese Communist Party and the State Chinese v were used to conduct both
Council in 1999 conceded to consider a individual and group interviews. Overall,
move away from an “exam-oriented” conversations of varying degrees of
education system and return to a modified formality were held with approximately 500
version of providing quality education for all students and 100 educators. Interview
children (Zhao 2009)iv. While the quality appointments with educational leadership of
education reforms are still in place, they run each school were set up ahead of time
parallel to, and intersect with, the current through a network of colleagues. Most of
examination system of the Gaokao, which these interviews were conducted
was reintroduced in 1977 after Mao’s death. individually with the guidance counselor/s,
The Gaokao remains competitive and affects the principal or vice principal and a few
every aspect of China’s education system as teachers lasting between thirty minutes to
well as most parts of Chinese society. This two hours. Conversations continued over
ancient meritocratic system, now lunch and dinner and in a few cases took
resurrected, receives wide support from the place in the homes of those interviewed.
government as the most effective means of Data collected for the research included
insuring fair and equal access. And while field notes not only by the researcher but
Kwong (1983) reminds us of the dominant also written comments taken by assistants
view that “before the system of grades, who had provided access to a couple of the
everyone is equal,” he raises concerns about schools. Class observations were limited in
inequality of educational opportunities by some schools due to the close proximity to
social class backgrounds and concludes that the taking of the end of year exams,
the examination system is not the root of including the Gaokao. However, discussions
social inequality but it certainly reflects, with individual students were plentiful as
maintains, and even exaggerates it. were presentations to groups of students
outside of class, in the auditorium or in a
Methodology public forum area. Visits to common spaces
such as the athletic field or cafeteria also
The ethnographic reports used in this provided opportunity for contact. A plethora
article were collected from visits to sixteen of materials were offered and gathered from
high schools and four universities in six schools, including both written and
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
electronic information relating to the as why the increase in interest among
school's history, transformation, and Chinese families in overseas education.
academic success. The latest statistical data In addition to the author's faculty
on the school's ranking in various categories position, she has served as a resource for the
were made available. Due to the sensitive university in admissions policy. With an
nature of the research, audio recording was increase in international students at research
not done; however, after the school visits institutions has come awareness that few
and the typing up of notes, specific people who serve in an Admissions capacity
questions and verification of data were know much about educational systems
requested by the researcher of the people beyond their shores or the variations among
interviewed. In all cases, email responses countries and how access to quality
were quick and responsibly detailed. schooling is affected by regionalism and
Findings and questions were further socio- economic status. Without this
triangulated through discussions with knowledge it is difficult, if not impossible,
university colleagues whose area of to verify the quality of students, their
specialty is in the field of education in China schools, or their transcripts. It is also
as well as parents and educators from other problematic for the institution, faculty, and
institutions. Analytic memos (Saldaña, staff. Greater knowledge of students'
2009) were taken along with the process of backgrounds increases overall global
conducting and transcribing the interviews. awareness of the entire campus. It was in
As noted below, access to these schools and this capacity as faculty Chair of Admissions
individuals was achievable through a that this author offered to identify and visit a
complex network. range of top Chinese secondary schools that
provide programs oriented towards overseas
1. Position of the researchers study. The preparation for this research
required approximately eight months of
The foundation for this work was laid work on top of regular responsibilities of
decades ago when the researcher (name teaching, service and writing for other
suppressed) first taught in Taiwan at the age venues. A second researcher is a graduate
of nineteen and commenced language study student under the first author’s sponsorship.
that then led to degrees in East Asian She has extensive international educational
Studies, Mandarin, and Japanese, then later experiences in China, Japan, Korea, and the
advanced work in Higher Education. Travel United States and also speaks several of
and research throughout Asia continued over these languages. She has worked with the
the decades with numerous articles, first author for four years as she finishes her
chapters, and books being written about her study of Chinese-American students in San
work on access to education and how this Francisco. Her research has demonstrated
varies across countries and cultures. In educational desire as the main cause of
addition she has developed and taught both immigration, the importance of positioning
undergraduate and graduate courses on children in schools for status, and the
Asian cultures and schooling as well as transnational identity of contemporary
Urban Education and Immigration in Chinese migrants who do not see themselves
America. Several of her research projects as immigrants. The research trip was aided
confirmed a lack of awareness by most by a host of contacts garnered from several
American educators with regards to the link sources including the parents of this
between home country schooling, researcher who hosted (the first author) at
immigration, and host country educational Peking University for a portion of the trip.
adaptability. These inquiries led to the
current research on how Chinese schools are
preparing students for study abroad as well
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
2. Network development numerous visits to her office by a host of
people who wanted to assist, including
As Creswell (2008) suggests, it is Chinese faculty, staff, graduate students, and
imperative to gain access to the research site professionals. In no case was a broker or
by seeking the approval of gatekeepers. And travel agent involved. The result, eight
while networking is a part of any months later, evolved into invitations to visit
ethnographic research project, it is essential sixteen top performing secondary schools
to the success of any work done in China. across 2,000 miles of the Eastern seaboard
The term guanxi used repeatedly and for of China.
generations, meaning “connection” or
“relationship,” is not to be taken lightly as 3. Access to the schools
one’s credibility is based on not only your
own status and credentials but also who has Access to Chinese schools is extremely
sent you, who you know. Perhaps this is one difficult. Most schools, and all of the
of the reasons why so few educational schools in this study, are gated, usually to
researchers from Western countries have the height of six to ten feet. All have
done fieldwork in China; a credible network security guards who check identification as
is essential to be able to move into spaces, well as phone the person inside who is to be
into institutions, and into the lives of people responsible for your presence on campus. To
who will offer their candid views that go gain access, an invitation has to be extended
beyond superficial or politically correct by someone within the school at a relatively
responses. Being able to gather accurate high rank. Even Chinese professors who
information requires not only the ability to train teachers and are located in education
provide a valid image but also the departments do not have knowledge of what
knowledge base to be able to move goes on in K-12 schools because they are
graciously and efficiently when making not provided accessvi.
inquiries. Contacts provide access but Almost all of the schools that the first
credibility and trust are in the hands of the author visited, fourteen out of sixteen, were
researcher. “attached” schools, meaning affiliated with a
Thanks to years working in the field of university (fuzhong). From an outsider’s
East Asian Studies, having some ability in perspective it may sound like these are
the language, and teaching and publishing in simply what might be called “elevator”
the area, the first author has cultivated schools, in fact it was made very clear that
colleagues who, when learning of her the fuzhongs operated with complete
interest in returning to China to inquire independence from the affiliated University,
about the educational changes over the last and in some cases the reputation of the
five years in top secondary schools that send quality of the secondary schools exceeded
a portion of their youth abroad, offered to that of the University to which they were
assist. These individuals then linked her to affiliated. This did not mean that the
others, sometimes three or four people University reputation was not good but
removed, who then opened their school, and rather that the middle school’s reputation for
their minds to the author. In many ways this quality education is far superior to that of
is the real story of research. It is a part of the the affiliated University.
process of doing research in particular in
places like China, Japan, India, Bhutan, and Findings
elsewhere that is often left out when telling
an American or British audience about one’s
Manipulating curriculum in depth and
research. The process for the present report
breadth
began in June 2012 with the prospect of
visiting one university and its attached high
school and led to hundreds of emails and
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
In contrast to the oft quoted assumption tests to demonstrate ability to handle the
that Chinese schools have retained their work, but the kinds of families represented
same character over the last fifty years, in the student body would surprise many
focusing on the memorization of math and who still believe it is only through contacts
science equations and offering little in the that access to top schools is possible.
way of creativity or language learning, the Within the social and economic context
findings from this research prove this not to of China, there are many arguments in favor
be the case. The Chinese educational system of boarding students. Given the one-child
has changed and continues to change as it is policy, boarding schools provide peers for
influenced by forces beyond governmental children with whom to play and interact.
control. Nowhere is this more evident than They learn cooperative social skills and
at the leading “middle schools” whose create bonds that last a lifetime. Boarding
students are being prepared with a schools also “liberate” parents from their
curriculum that is not only rigorous in depth children so that they can both work outside
but also in breadth. Three years of physics, jobs without being concerned with the
biology, chemistry, and advanced math are whereabouts of their children. (In contrast to
matched by art, theatre, dance, music and a Japan and Korea, middle-class educated
range of sports programs with facilities to women in China work full-time responsible
match. Extensive use of advanced jobs). No latch key kids; no shuttling kids
technology has resulted in some schools off to afterschool events; no disputes about
having programs in robotics and game when to go to bed or get up for school or if
design and heralding labs supported by high and when to do homework. After a day of
tech companies such as Cisco Systems. classes and sports, students have a choice of
Large, modern well-equipped buildings are afterschool activities. Then following dinner
surrounded by grassy fields and areas for two hours of study hall were monitored by
students to gather. In addition to facilities teachers on a rotating basis. This again is in
that would be the norm in any American contrast to Japan and Korea where most
high school, each of the sixteen schools children in middle and senior school attend
visited for this research project also had its private jukus or hagwons after school,
own convenience shop, coffee shop, returning home late at night. Traversing
bookstore, medical facility, and dorms. And back and forth to these “tutoring centers”
English language learning is required of all leaves young people on the streets and
students beginning in primary school. parents worrying at home. All of the schools
Since many middle schools (including the researcher visited highly discouraged
all of those in this study) provide dorms for parents from putting their children into
some of their students, meaning that kids supplementary education classes on the
will be boarding from Monday to Friday and weekends and were ardently opposed to the
go home on the weekends, the schools take use of brokers for seeking further education.
seriously their role of in loco parentis.
Medical and psychological services are on Alternative approach to the traditional
site with appropriate professionals available exam-oriented education
to assist students. Remember the schools
discussed here are large public schools with Entrance to “high school” (upper middle
populations between 2,000 and 6,000 in six school) is based on an exam taken in the
grades. These are not the same as our ninth year of schooling. The score on this
stereotypes of private British or American exam determines the high school to which
boarding schools. First of all, costs are you will be admitted. As we discussed
extremely low, ranging from $100 to $600 earlier, academic high schools are geared
per semester; this includes tuition, room and towards preparation for the senior year
board. Second, these schools are not only for examination, the Gaokao. As a result the
the elite. Students must pass competency first two years of high school usually
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Preparation for Transnationalism Gordon & Liu
provide extensive curricular rigor but spend Gaokao for entrance. This does not mean
the third year learning the particulars of test that only students in the international
taking and memorization of material for programs are prepared for overseas study.
success. While this is still the norm, many Some of the best students are in the Gaokao
schools are breaking away from this model, program and have the intention of
especially in urban areas, and providing a attempting to score high enough on the
variety of alternative programs for some of Gaokao to be admitted to one of the two
their students. preeminent and most selective universities
One such program is designed for in China: Peking University or Tsinghua
students who want to continue their higher University. If they are not accepted to these
education overseas after high school. These two, as repeatedly told to the researcher by
international programs are nested within the Beijing educators, then these top students
larger high school but have a separate would consider overseas studyvii.
curriculum whereby most or all courses are Top Chinese public schools draw from a
taught in English. A select group of native range of students, even beyond their
English speaking teachers come from all catchment area, whose academic abilities
over the world to teach in these programs have won them access. Hence, these schools
and, as a result, the cost for participating in with international programs are elite in
the international program is significantly accomplishment but not necessarily in
higher than in the regular Gaokao program family affluence, though parents who
(about $16,000 a year including tuition, encourage a child to enter an international
room and board vs. $800 for Gaokao). The program in a public school are well aware of
schools the researcher visited varied the financial and emotional costs both in
significantly in the size of these programs China and in the U.S. Because of the
from 450 students out of 6,000 in one school immense commitment required by all
to 50 out of 2,000 in another. concerned, in some schools parents are
Students in the international program interviewed when a child makes application,
associate with the other students in their long before their child is admitted to 10th
high school. However, because their courses grade, to insure that they are aware of the
are distinctively different, seldom are expectations and multiple costs that such a
students allowed to cross over into the decision will incur.
regular Gaokao program once they have The curriculum in the international
begun with the international program. This programs usually follows the American or
means that, for the most part, they cannot British model, offering AP, IB, A-Level and
attend a Chinese university since these, with PGA courses (Please refer to Table 1).
a few exceptions, require the passage of the

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