ERIC EJ1135213: Fostering Effective Leadership in Foreign Contexts through Study of Cultural Values

2016·0.1 MB·English

by  ERIC

Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 6 Issue 1 Spring 2016
http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252

Fostering Effective Leadership in Foreign Contexts through Study of Cultural
Values

Andrew D. Schenck, B.S., M.A.
University of the Cumberlands

While leadership styles have been extensively examined, cultural biases implicit within research
methodologies often preclude application of results in foreign contexts. To more holistically
comprehend the impact of culture on leadership, belief systems were empirically correlated to both
transactional and transformational tendencies in public schools from 38 different countries. Results
revealed that desires to obey authority and tradition are strongly correlated to both leadership styles.
These values may clarify expectations, thereby facilitating effective leadership and organizational
behaviors on a global scale. Respect for others, a desire to work for social good, and a need to act
both independently and creatively were significantly related to the transformational approach. These
values indicate that an individualistic and egalitarian self-concept fosters transformational behaviors.
Finally, lack of gender egalitarianism and emphasis on monetary gain predicted the presence of
transactional strategies, suggesting that clear role differentiation is required to successfully utilize
rewards and punishments. Collectively, study of cultural beliefs yielded new insights for the
enhancement of educational leadership, training, and evaluation.
Keywords: Leadership, Transactional, Transformational, Culture, Evaluation

Introduction

Machiavelli (1998) wrote, “dispute arises Rhee, Luthans, & Avey, 2008), positional
whether it is better to be loved than feared, or the authority is tenuous, and does not promote strong
reverse. The response is that one would want to bonds with followers (Georgesen & Harris, 2006).
be both the one and the other; but because it is Issues with this leadership style have led some
difficult to put them together, it is much safer to researchers to conclude that transformational
be feared” (p. 66). His statement implies that the approaches are more effective (Bass, 1999; Lowe,
cultivation of trepidation is more effective as a Kroeck, & Sivasubramaniam, 1996).
means to maintain power and gain respect (Smith, Transformational leadership represents a
2011). This type of authoritarian perspective has more “loving” side of the managerial continuum.
been used to support more top-down leadership Via this approach, leaders motivate employees
strategies, such as the transactional approach, through:
which imbue leaders with the power to distribute
resources or punish employees. Although there is 1. Inspirational Motivation (Articulating a
a great deal of research emphasizing the vision and cultivating a strong sense of
effectiveness of this style of governance (Bass, purpose)
Avolio, Jung, & Berson, 2003; Judge & Piccolo, 2. Intellectual Stimulation (Challenging
2004; Koh, Steers, & Terborg, 1995; Luthans, followers to think outside the box)

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3. Individual Consideration (Attendance to Although new strategies are often
each follower’s needs) systematically designed and applied, contextual
4. Idealized Influence (Setting high ethical circumstances impact the efficacy of
standards and serving as a role model) implementation. This view is exemplified by
study of policy and administration in Asian
Instead of ruling through fear, leaders use schools such as South Korea, Japan, Hong Kong,
charisma and interpersonal skills to motivate, and China. Within these Confucian countries,
cultivate a strong sense of vision, set high ethical cultural reliance on group cohesion promotes
guidelines, and provide assistance according to uniform national policies for curricular design
individual needs. There is a considerable amount and school administration (CIEB, 2014; Hogan,
of evidence supporting the effectiveness of this 2014; Ngok, 2007; Shin & Koh, 2005). These
leadership style (Bolkan, & Goodboy, 2009; Dvir, policies are then implemented at the local level
Eden, Avolio, & Shamir, 2002; Tims, Bakker & by staff, who often share the cultural beliefs of
Xanthopoulou, 2011). policymakers (Hadley, 1997). Through
“translation” of policy and implementation via a
Literature Review cultural lens, local schools in Confucian countries
have become highly collective, standardized, and
To ensure the success of new leadership hierarchical (Cheng & Wong, 1996). As this
strategies, objectives must be systematically example illustrates, planning and implementation
planned and implemented according to an undergoes “translation” according to cultural
organization’s vision (Collins & Porras, 1996; context.
Herman, 1989; Malone, Narayan, Mark, Miller, Since cultural values impact the effectiveness
& Kekahio, 2014). While steps involved in the of policy and administration, leaders must
planning process vary according to organization, consider these ideals during the planning process.
they generally follow a four-stage process such as Not only must belief systems be utilized for the
the following (Center for Mental Health in design and implementation of reforms, they must
Schools, 2013, p. 3): be used to critically evaluate educational
effectiveness. Failure to acknowledge one’s own
1. Create readiness, commitment, and cultural paradigm may invalidate claims of
engagement to a project efficacy in foreign contexts. This is exemplified
2. Build infrastructure and capacity to by a study of 88 North American managers.
pursue the initial implementation Results of the study revealed that 73% of
3. Replicate, sustain and evolve the managers were not satisfied with their company’s
implementation to enhance outcomes mission statement, primarily because they had
4. Generate creative renewal and not participated in its creation (Mullane, 2002).
replication Although analysis ultimately led to the assertion
that more participation in mission creation is
Through the planning process, leaders beneficial, North American inclinations toward
prepare the environment by informing participative leadership can serve to invalidate
organizational members of upcoming changes, this claim in other cultural contexts. Within
build the physical and financial means to Confucian countries, where low value is placed
implement new goals, initiate new tasks that align on participative leadership (Northouse, 2013),
with objectives, and include a means to sustain subordinates may exhibit little desire to craft
changes (Center for Mental Health in Schools, mission statements.
2013; Malone, Narayan, Mark, Miller, & Past research reveals a clear gap in
Kekahio, 2014). Throughout this cycle, understanding concerning the interaction of
systematic frameworks such as theory-based leadership, policy implementation, and culture.
evaluation (TBE) must be utilized to appraise This view is further exemplified through
administration, achievement, and program assessments such as The Readiness for
efficacy (Kim, 2011). Organizational Learning and Evaluation
Instrument (ROLE). Although ROLE evaluates
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both cultural characteristics (e.g., collaboration, Like power distance, the impact of
risk taking, and participatory decision making) collectivism on traditional leadership paradigms
and leadership (e.g., mentoring, service to the is not well known. Collectivism describes the
institution, and the sharing of new knowledge), it degree to which organizational members think
fails to identify relationships between the two and act as a group (Luthans, Rhee, Luthans, &
factors, which may ultimately mitigate the Avey, 2008). Middle Eastern, Latin American,
efficacy of new educational strategies (Russ-Eft and East Asian countries are reported to have a
& Preskill, 2009). As with other studies high degree of collectivism (Gumusluoglu &
conducted in Western environments, it primarily Ilsev, 2009; Northouse, 2013; Rodgriguez-Rubio
emphasizes participative and egalitarian forms of & Kiser, 2013). Joint action and group cohesion
leadership, which are often quite different from may promote cultivation of a common group
the hierarchical power structures in countries like vision, which is necessary for transformational
South Korea, China, and Japan (Northouse, 2013). leadership. Conversely, the same behavioral
Biases in the construction of policies for design, attributes may prohibit independent action,
implementation, and evaluation often lead to thereby precluding creativity and empowerment
failure when they are adapted to disparate cultural required for the same leadership approach. Since
contexts (Eacott & Asuga, 2014). seemingly contradictory consequences may result
Studies have been conducted to examine the from collectivist beliefs, further inquiry is needed.
impact of cultural values on organizational The degree to which males possess dominant
behavior and leadership (Hofstede, 1980, 2001; roles in society, termed masculinity, is yet
House, Javidan, Hanges, Dorfman, 2002; House, another potential influence of transformational
Hanges, Javidan, Dorman, & Gupta, 2004; House, and transactional leadership styles. As with
Hanges, Ruiz-Quintanilla, Dorfman, Javidan, collectivism, it is common within many Latin
Dickson, & Gupta, 1999). This research reveals American, Middle Eastern, and Asian nations
five distinct categories of cultural influence: (Rodriguez-Rubio & Kiser, 2013; Nguyen,
power distance, individualism (vs. collectivism), Terlouw, & Pilot, 2006; Northouse, 2013).
masculinity (vs. femininity), uncertainty According to a masculine paradigm, men are
avoidance, and long-term (vs. short-term) prompted to be assertive and focused upon
orientation (Hofstede, 1980, 2001). While material gain, whereas women are compelled to
classifications explain the impact of belief be modest, nurturing, and concerned with the
systems on organizational behavior, they do not welfare of others (Nguyen, Terlouw, & Pilot,
elucidate the influence of cultural values on 2006). In such societies where gender roles are so
traditional styles of governance, such as delineated, transformational and transactional
transactional or transformational leadership. The leadership may be significantly impacted.
concept of power distance, for example, only Masculine leaders who maintain assertive power
explains the degree to which members of a group distance can promote hierarchical relationships
respect and accept disparities between leaders needed for transactional leadership, whereas
and subordinates (Northouse, 2013); it does not female leaders may better utilize transformational
expound the impact of tolerance for authority on strategies to cultivate egalitarian interaction.
egalitarian transformational strategies or As with gender-based cultural beliefs, the
transactional rewards and punishments. When tendency to seek out precise directions before
values for power distance are high, leaders may performing an action, termed uncertainty
be reluctant to allow subordinates the freedom to avoidance, may impact both transactional and
act, thwarting attempts to implement transformational leadership styles (Northouse,
transformational strategies. Lack of defined 2013). Within universalist cultures, teachers
power structure may preclude transactional adhere to strict rules and regulations, precluding
leadership, since there is no authority to bestow creative and innovative decision-making. This
rewards or enforce punishments. More research is suggests that universalist cultures would promote
needed to establish the validity of these transactional strategies which have well-defined
assumptions. status hierarchies, social rules, and status
differences. Particularist cultures, which allow
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subordinates to move beyond guidelines to make 1. To what extent do cultural values explain
independent decisions (Trompenaars, 1994; the manifestation of transactional and
Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner, 1998), may transformational behaviors in foreign
promote independent decision-making behaviors contexts? How do cultural values impact
associated with the transformational leadership the utilization of leadership strategies in
style. diverse school systems?
A final cultural factor impacting traditional 2. How can cultural values be exploited
leadership paradigms is orientation, which when adapting new leadership strategies
describes the perspectives from which both to foreign contexts?
leaders and employees understand their work
environment. A future orientation denotes Such analysis may reveal the insight necessary to
consideration of potential issues, either through effectively utilize innovative leadership styles
planning or investing (Northouse, 2013). within foreign contexts. It may also facilitate
Germanic, Nordic, and Eastern European understanding of how new behavioral policies
countries are reported to be future oriented should be implemented.
(Bakacsi, Sandor, András, & Viktor, 2002;
Northouse, 2013). Performance orientation is the Method
degree to which organizational members focus
upon the successful completion of tasks. Anglo, To examine the impact of culture on
Confucian, and Germanic countries yield high leadership, values from 38 different countries
values for this characteristic (Northouse, 2013). were compared to average transactional /
Due to the focus on job completion, performance transformational leadership scores obtained from
orientation may promote transactional leadership, public schools (Appendix A). These countries
which relies heavily on task-based rewards and were purposively selected based upon their
punishments. Finally, humane orientation is the categorization into 10 different regional clusters
altruistic and generous mindset for other group within the GLOBE study (Northouse, 2013). It
members. This cultural belief can support was thought that such purposeful examination
transformational leadership, since selfless would yield a more comprehensive perspective of
characteristics promote empowerment and disparate belief systems.
mutual assistance. Due to the prevalence of Cultural values were assessed using the
humane perspectives in African (Ubuntu, World Values Survey (WVS). This assessment of
Harambee); East Asian (Taoist, Confucianism); beliefs is conducted in almost 100 countries
Mediterranean (Jewish); and Indian (Hindu) which represent 90% of the world’s population.
countries, transformational leadership may be With almost 400,000 respondents, it covers a
more common in these regions (Winston & Ryan, wide range of different cultural and
2008). socioeconomic contexts, making it an ideal tool
Although cultural values have been studied in for the examination of cultural values within this
detail, their impact on traditional styles of study (WVS, 2012). The survey includes 258
governance, such as transactional or questions that cover a range of beliefs related to
transformational leadership, have yet to be family, friends, interests, politics, work, and
concretely established. This gap in understanding religion (World Values Survey Association, 2009).
has made adaptation of new leadership styles to To assess the impact of ethnic beliefs on
foreign contexts highly challenging. In an attempt leadership and organizational behavior, each
to further understand how culture may impact question of the WVS was reviewed for similarity
educational leadership and the implementation of to five known categories of cultural influence
new leadership strategies, the following questions (power distance, collectivism, masculinity,
were posed: uncertainty avoidance, and orientation). Overall,
12 questions were selected. Values concerning
income differences and adherence to superiors
were selected as positive indicators of power
distance (V96, V138), whereas respect for
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younger people was selected as a negative uncertainty avoidance, whereas taking risks was
indicator (V157). Creativity and individual action selected as a negative indicator. Questions about
were chosen to reflect individualism (V70), while desires to be rich, work for the good of society,
values against competition were selected to and utilization of social connections (as opposed
reflect collective beliefs and the desire to adhere to hard work) were chosen to analyze orientations
to group norms (V99). Question V139, which of performance (focus on immediate rewards and
cited the importance of gender equality, was punishments or hard work) and humanity (focus
selected for its inverse relationship to masculinity. on others). The survey questions are summarized
Importance of behaving properly and adherence in Table 1:
to tradition were selected as positive indicators of

Table 1
Questions Taken from the World Values Survey
Power Distance Collectivism vs. Masculinity Uncertainty Orientation
Individuality Avoidance
V96 Employees V70 Creativity / V139 Women V76 Taking Risks V71 Want to Be
Need Larger Doing Things Need Same Rights Is Important Rich
Income Your Own Way Is as Men
Differences Important V77 It Is V74 Work Is for
Important to Good of Society
V138 People V99 Competition Behave Properly
Should Obey Is Harmful V100 Hard Work
Rulers V79 Tradition Is Doesn’t Bring
Important Success / Luck
V157 People in and Connections
20s Are Highly Do
Respected

Each of the questions from the survey body; school resources; instruction, curriculum,
included responses which were coded on an and assessment; school climate; and school
ordinal scale. For those from 70 to 79, a six item policy and practice (OECD, 2012). Each question
ordinal scale ranging from Very Much Like Me to was reviewed to find indicators of either
Not at All Like Me was utilized. Respondents who transactional or transformational approaches.
chose Very Much Like Me were assigned the Following review, questions SC31 and SC34
highest similarity score to the target value (6), were selected to represent transactional and
whereas those who chose Not at All Like Me transformational leadership respectively.
were assigned the lowest value (1). Questions Details about rewards and punishments were
falling between 96 and 157 had a 10-item ordinal obtained from survey query SC31, which
scale. Respondents who chose the value of 10 included the following question and choices
revealed the highest score for the target value (OECD, 2012):
(World Values Survey Association, 2009). To what extent have appraisals and/or
To assess levels of transactional and feedback to teachers directly led to the following?
transformational leadership, the Program for
International Student Assessment (PISA) was 1. A change in salary
utilized (OECD, 2014). PISA is a triennial 2. A financial bonus
international survey used to evaluate education 3. Opportunities for professional
systems in 70 different economies (PISA, 2012). development
The survey includes 50 questions (including 4. A change in the likelihood of career
several sub-questions) which assess structure and advancement
organization of the school; student and teacher 5. Public recognition from you
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6. Changes in work responsibilities that well as the roles of group members, promotes the
make the job more attractive efficacy of multiple leadership approaches.
7. A role in school development initiatives Although values concerning authority and
(e.g., development of school objectives) tradition were associated to both leadership styles,
Respect for Young People in their 20s (V157) was
The degree of change (no, small, moderate, large) only correlated to transformational leadership (r
was empirically coded from 0 to 3 respectively = .453; p < .05). This finding appears to indicate
for each response. Resulting values were then that more egalitarian perspectives (concerning
averaged to receive an overall score for the age) favor transformational leadership styles.
impact of transactional approaches for each Indicators of collectivism or individualism
country. yielded one significant correlation. Creativity and
To examine average values for Doing Things Your Own Way (V70) was
transformational leadership, SC34 was utilized significantly correlated to transformational
(OECD, 2012). This survey question examined leadership (r = .448; p < .05), suggesting that this
various means of school management. Each of cultural trait impacts the degree to which
the subsections of this query dealt with four main subordinates create innovative solutions, make
categories of transformational leadership: individual decisions, or deal with empowerment.
inspirational motivation of subordinates, Albeit insignificant, the polarity of correlations to
promotion of intellectual development, Competition is Harmful (V99) may yield insight.
consideration of individuals, and idealized The positive correlation with transactional
influence through an ethical standard or group leadership suggests that adherence to group
vision (See Table B1). As with the previous norms drives the distribution of contingent
question for transactional leadership, SC34 was rewards or punishments, whereas the negative
empirically coded according to responses (did not correlation to transformational leadership
occur, 1-2 times, 3-4 times, once a month, once a suggests that group norms adversely impact
week, and more than once a week). Numbers individual empowerment.
ranged from 0 to 5 respectively. After responses While not significantly correlated to
were coded, they were averaged to obtain a score transformational leadership, gender equality was
for the transformational approach for each highly correlated to transactional leadership in a
country. negative direction (r = -.547; p < .01). This may
Following the calculation of averages, reveal that asymmetrical power relationships
resulting means for cultural values were influence hierarchical control of resources. Such
statistically compared to those for transactional a perspective matches the transactional approach,
and transformational approaches using the which relies on central distribution of resources
Pearson rank correlation coefficient. Resulting within a hierarchical social system. A high
data were collated and analyzed. preference for gender egalitarianism may erode
power relationships which dictate the distribution
Results and Discussion of transactional rewards or punishments,
explaining lower and insignificant correlations
Correlations between cultural values and with transformational leadership. In addition to
leadership style reveal significant relationships gender, a lack of significance for the relationship
that may impact program planning and between Respect for Young People in their 20s
implementation (Table 2). First of all, cultural (V157) and transactional leadership further
values related to power distance and uncertainty supports the claim that culturally driven social
avoidance expose significant correlations to the hierarchies impact leadership and organizational
utilization of both transactional and effectiveness. Age-graded egalitarianism may
transformational leadership. People Should Obey decrease the efficacy of hierarchical and
Rulers (V138) was positively correlated to both transactional resource distribution.
transactional (r = .600; p < .01) and
transformational (r = .572; p < .01) leadership. It
appears that a clear understanding of authority, as
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Table 2
Pearson Correlations between Cultural Values and Transactional/Transformational Leadership
Cultural Value Transactional Transformational
World Values Survey Question (WVS)
Average Average
Power V96 Need Larger Income Differences as Incentives r .195 .154
Distance p .385 .495
V138 People Should Obey Rulers r .600** .572**
p .003 .005
V157 Respect for Young People in their 20s r .213 .453*
p .342 .034
Collectivism V70 Creativity and Doing Things Your Own Way Is r .208 .448*
Important
p .354 .037
V99 Competition Is Harmful r .267 -.210
p .229 .347
Masculinity V139 Women Need Same Rights as Men r -.547** -.312
p .008 .158
Uncertainty V76 Taking Risks Is Important r .415 .193
Avoidance p .055 .390
V77 It Is Important to Behave Properly r .367 .534*
p .092 .011
V79 Tradition Is Important r .488* .454*
p .021 .034
Work V71 Want to Be Rich r .661** .245
Orientation p .001 .272
V74 Work Is for the Good of Society r .326 .548*
p .149 .010
V100 Hard Work Doesn’t Bring Success, Luck and r .156 -.233
Connections Do
p .489 .296

As for uncertainty avoidance, the importance that clarity of expected behaviors, as well as the
of both proper behavior (V77) and tradition (V79) roles of group members, supports status
were significantly correlated to transformational hierarchies required to control resource
leadership, yielding values of r = .534 and r distribution.
= .454 respectively. While adherence to proper Two values of work orientation were
behavior and tradition could be expected to correlated to leadership. The desire to be rich
detract from the innovative behaviors required for (V71) was significantly correlated to
empowerment, they appear to promote transactional leadership (r = .661; p = < .01). Not
transformational leadership. Perhaps a clear surprisingly, cultural views which value
understanding of expected behaviors makes monetary rewards appear to promote the
adaption of this leadership style easier. Teachers utilization of transactional leadership. In contrast
may already understand how they must behave, to individualistic desires, more selfless cultural
making empowerment less problematic. A high perspectives, which promote the good of society
correlation of tradition (V79) to transactional (V74), support the use of transformational
leadership (r = .488; p = < .05) might also suggest techniques (r = .548; p = < .05).
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that training, on a global level, may be enhanced
Summary and Conclusions when respect for both tradition and authority are
cultivated. These beliefs may facilitate successful
Overall, cultural values appear to have a implementation of tasks via any leadership
significant impact on the effectiveness of paradigm.
leadership strategies (Table 3). Desires to obey
authority (rulers) and cultural traditions are
strongly correlated to both leadership styles. It
appears that these values clarify expectations,
thereby facilitating effective leadership and
organizational behaviors. This finding suggests

Table 3
Indicators of Different Leadership Styles
Transformational Indicators Transactional Indicators Both
 Respect for young  Lack of gender  Obey authority (Rulers)
people egalitarianism
 Creativity and doing  Emphasis on monetary  Obey cultural tradition
things one’s own way gain
 Importance of proper
behavior (etiquette)
 Desire to work for the
good of society

Respect for young people, the importance of control of resources. The finding further suggests
proper behavior (etiquette), a desire to work for that transactional approaches require highly
the good of society, and a need to act defined social roles for the distribution of rewards
independently or creatively all indicate a cultural and punishments.
preference for transformational leadership. Each Overall, results suggest that cultural values
of these factors represents individuality, significantly impact the type of leadership
decreased power distance, and an emphasis on strategy employed within foreign educational
social welfare. Essentially, they support the more contexts. Data suggests that attitudes toward
egalitarian and participatory characteristics of a authority and tradition govern all types of
transformational approach, explaining why organizational management (Figure 1).
countries exhibiting these cultural characteristics Ultimately, respect for leaders and cultural
are more highly transformational. In contrast to traditions gives subordinates a willingness to
the transformational approach, lack of gender operate within administrative systems. It is
egalitarianism and emphasis on monetary gain therefore essential that group training and team-
predict the presence of transactional strategies. building exercises be designed to cultivate
Both of these characteristics appear to indicate respect for leadership figures and work culture.
that a more hierarchical system is promoting the
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Figure 1. Values impacting leadership.

While respect for authority appears essential for Not only do aforementioned cultural
the adaptation of any new leadership paradigm, indicators help evaluate the feasibility of
transformational and transactional leadership also leadership approaches, they provide insight
require disparate attitudes or belief systems for concerning the best methods of implementation.
implementation. Transformational approaches If a culture or organization scores low in
require an egalitarian perspective (e.g., gender indicators for age or gender equality, substantial
and age). Group members must develop a self- reforms may be needed to effectively enact
concept that frees them from hierarchical status transformational strategies. Training programs
constraints, thereby facilitating the rejection of may be needed to cultivate mutual respect and
standard behavioral protocols for the good of tolerance for decision-making, regardless of
society (or the group). Values for creativity, gender, age, or race. Such training must be more
individuality, work for the good of society, and than a “one-shot” seminar. A process approach is
respect for differences (e.g., age) reflect the needed to overcome or accommodate
individualistic paradigm which promotes longstanding cultural norms, which may have
transformational governance. In contrast, existed for hundreds of years. Consensus and
transactional leadership requires a concrete cooperation must be built phase-by-phase until a
understanding of role differences. Power collaborative work environment is obtained. Due
relationships must be clearly delineated so that to the potential length of this procedure, a process
resources are controlled. Masculinity and desire facilitator should be appointed to guide
for monetary gain both reflect values that development, ensuring that equity education is
maintain hierarchical structures and established infused within each collaborative exercise (Straus,
power relationships. 2009).

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Although limited reform of traditional values to constituents, so that nonproductive power
may be possible in some contexts, many cultures struggles are avoided. Concrete demarcation of
maintain deep-seated status hierarchies that make responsibilities is even more imperative for the
out-of-the-box adaptation of a Western elimination of discriminatory practices. If work
transformational paradigm problematic. In roles are not clearly defined, employees may
Confucian cultures, for example, strict status enact tacit rules to increase control over resources
disparities based upon gender, age, and social (e.g. monetary promotions, social status, etc.). To
position (e.g., years worked at place of promote impartial control of resources, clear
employment) preclude empowerment of delineation of authority without bias must be
subordinates, as well as cooperation among established, as well as specialized training in the
individuals from different social strata (Ishibashi, ethical use of power.
& Kottke, 2009). In such circumstances, a Due to the impact of culture on efficacy
“hybrid” model of transformational leadership of leadership, it is essential that new systems of
may be needed. Within schools, teachers with evaluation incorporate cultural differences within
similar status positions may be organized into the assessment process. Relationships between
several smaller groups, each empowered to cultural values and leadership styles represent
perform within a range of responsibilities set by concrete measures of organizational leadership
their superior. Utilizing groups organized by and behavior. Study of these relationships may
social position will ensure that participants feel allow educators in foreign contexts to better
empowered to make decisions, voice innovative understand how their own values shape new
ideas, and collaborate effectively within their leadership paradigms or educational strategies. It
respective groups. At the same time, superiors may also facilitate the a priori “translation” of
maintain more transactional, autocratic traditionally Western leadership theories into
relationships characteristic of their culture. As viable alternatives.
exemplified by this example, successful
adaptation of transformational paradigms may Author’s Bio
often require careful integration of Western
values with those of the local culture. ANDREW SCHENCK has taught English
If a transactional policy is to be implemented, learners for over 15 years. He currently works as
values stressing individuality and low power an adjunct professor of ESOL at Monroe
distance can be counteracted through the Community College in Rochester, NY. He is also
development of clearly delineated roles for the a doctoral student at the University of the
distribution of rewards or punishments. When Cumberlands, studying to obtain a Ph.D. in
incentives (e.g., bonuses, privileges, etc.) or Educational Leadership with a concentration in
reprimands (probation, withholding of privileges, English.
etc.) are used, it is essential that administrative
responsibilities are well-defined and transparent
10