ERIC EJ1135209: Motivation to Learn and Teacher-Student Relationship

2016·0.2 MB·English

by  ERIC

Journal of International Education and Leadership Volume 6 Issue 2 Summer 2016
http://www.jielusa.org/ ISSN: 2161-7252

Motivation to Learn and Teacher–Student Relationship

Fatih Koca, Ph.D.
Karadeniz Techical University

When children enter school for the first time, they encounter a variety of new challenges that
include creating positive relationships with peer groups and adults as well as learning to meet the
demands of a wide range of cognitive, social, and academic tasks (Baker, 2006; Birch & Ladd,
1997; Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins, 1995). Infants and young children appear to be mobilized by
curiosity and driven by an intense need to explore, interact with, and discover their environment
Therefore, understanding and documenting the importance of young children’s motivation to learn
is very important. Motivation to learn refers to a competence acquired through general experience
that is predominantly stimulated through modeling, communication of expectations, and direct
instruction or socialization by significant others (Brophy, 1987). This review of the literature
focuses on the importance of young children’s motivation to learn in their academic and social
competencies, the effects of the quality of teacher-student relationships on their motivation to
learn, and the implications for students who exhibit poor motivation in the early years at school
years through the lenses of Self-Determination and Expectancy-Value for Achievement
Motivation theories.
Keywords: motivation to learn, teacher – student relationship, academic achievement, school
adjustment

Introduction The leading approach to improve the U.S.
education system currently centers on raising
It is a generally accepted truth that the future standards that can be measured through
lies in the hands of the next generation and that standardized tests. The idea is that without a
the success of the next generation is based quantifiable measure of progress, schools cannot
largely on education. Increasing numbers of know whether they are improving; similarly, by
reports and articles in the media have been comparing their results with those of other
published in recent years showing that education schools, it is reasoned, schools will be motivated
of the next generation in the United States is to make even greater strides. It has been
lacking. The long-standing superpower stands to suggested (Thompson, 2010) that an emphasis
lose its status on the global playing field, on student motivation may be far more valuable
threatening the way America has come to see than an emphasis on which specific facts
itself and its role in the world. These trends have students have memorized from U.S. history or
caused panic, and politicians have claimed a which functions they can calculate in
rededication of their efforts in this arena. mathematics.
However, while the belief that U.S. students are While it may be somewhat counterintuitive
falling behind the world academically is to argue that education is best improved by
widespread, no single concrete solution has focusing on something other than the material
emerged. the students are expected to learn, many studies
have shown that this very well might be the
Motivation to Learn Koca

case. The idea states, in brief, that motivated of novel learning situations by referring to their
students learn more, learn better, and learn by motivational beliefs (Brophy, 1987).
themselves. That is to say, a tradeoff is more Motivational belief refers to the opinions,
than worth it: To dedicate some percentage of a judgments, and values that students hold about
teacher’s time and efforts to motivating students objects, events, and learning processes (Brophy,
will translate at the end of the day to those 1987). Motivational belief also refers to
students having learned a lot more than if that students’ opinions of the efficacy or
same time and effort had been invested in effectiveness of learning and the teaching
conventional transfer-of-knowledge methods, or process. For example, children’s beliefs about
far worse, test preparation. their academic experiences have important
Accordingly, many researchers have implications for their school adjustment and
conducted studies on student academic academic achievement (Mueller & Dweck,
motivation and student goal orientation. In 1998; Wigfield & Eccles, 2002). Accordingly,
particular, those researchers who concentrate on expectancies and values are directly determined
the dynamics of motivation within classroom by other achievement-related beliefs such as
settings have started to emphasize the potential achievement goals, self-schemata, and beliefs
role of relational variables (e.g., Davis, 2003; about science (Wigfield, 1994). Similarly,
Pianta, 1999) and teacher behaviors (e.g., motivational beliefs act as a frame of reference
Skinner & Belmont, 1993) in student academic that guides students’ thinking, feelings, and
engagement. In the last 40 years, researchers actions in any subject area. For example,
examined student motivation, focusing on motivational beliefs about mathematics
several questions (e.g., Pintrich, 2003 Skinner, determine which strategies and motivational
1995; Stipek, 1988): What moves students to goals students develop. Significantly, a student’s
learn? What influences the quantity and quality beliefs about a domain are predominantly
of the effort they invest? What choices do optimistic or pessimistic, thus providing a
students make? What makes them persist in the positive or negative context for learning
face of hardship? How is student motivation (Skinner, 1995; Stipek, 1988; Vermeer,
affected by children’s relationships with Boekaerts, & Seegers, 2000).
significant adults? How does motivation Teacher–child relations play a prominent
develop? How does the school environment role in the development of competencies in early
affect it? Thus, educators, parents, and students school-age years (Pianta, Steinberg, & Rollins,
have paid substantial attention to the importance 1995; Pianta & Walsh, 1996) and during the
of motivation in school because of significant transition to middle school (Davis, 2003; Pianta,
contributions it has been shown to have on 1999). Teachers may operate as social agents,
student academic learning, self-esteem, self- and they can affect students’ intellectual and
efficacy, and school readiness. socioemotional experiences by creating a
Motivation to learn is a competence classroom setting that stimulates both student
acquired through general experience that is motivation and learning. Moreover, teacher–
predominantly stimulated through modeling, student relationships serve a regulatory function
communication of expectations, and direct for the development of social, emotional, and
instruction or socialization by significant others academic skills (Davis, 2006). Studies have
(Brophy, 1987). Infants and young children shown that positive teacher–student
appear to be mobilized by curiosity and driven relationships can lead to a warm classroom
by an intense need to explore, interact with, and environment that facilitates successful
discover their environment. In the classroom adaptation in school and thereby increases
setting, the content covered and the social student motivation to learn. In contrast,
context can vary continuously. Therefore, conflictual teacher–student relationships are
children are frequently involved in unfamiliar associated with lower achievement and self-
learning environments. This can create esteem as well as ongoing relational conflict
ambiguity for some students but can challenge with both teachers and peers (Buyse,
others. Accordingly, students try to make sense Verschueren, Doumen, Van Damme, & Maes,
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2008; Hamre & Pianta, 2005). Research has Theoretical Considerations
further indicated that children with whom
teachers report positive relationships are Further understanding of the topics of
outgoing and socially competent (Birch & Ladd, motivation and learning is facilitated through the
1997 Pianta et al., 1995). Moreover, in these lenses of various theoretical frameworks. These
studies the teachers believed that high-quality frameworks shed light on the bigger picture of
relationships between teachers and their students motivation and learning and are helpful guides
enhance classroom learning and motivation by in developing practical new approaches to the
building a safe and supportive classroom context classroom. Two major relevant theories are
for students to open up and listen to the teachers discussed below: self-determination and
and take intellectual risks (Birch & Ladd, 1997; expectancy-value for achievement motivation.
Pianta et al., 1995). Similarly, the beliefs As children continue their social, emotional, and
teachers hold about teaching and learning, and physical development during school years, they
the nature of expectations they have about their broaden their familial and extra-familial
students also exert a powerful influence (Stipek, relationships (Marvin & Stewart, 1990).
1988). These findings support the key role of Participation in family–child, teacher–child, and
teacher–student relationships on children’s peer–child systems supports the development of
motivation to learn and school adjustment. play, social interaction, and conflict resolution
A variety of studies have examined the skills for those children (Lynch & Cicchetti,
influence of familial, academic, and personal 1992; Pianta, 1999).
factors on student academic failure and poor
motivation to learn (e.g., Covington, 1992). Self-System and Self-Determination Theories
Among personal variables most studied are self-
concept, unfavorable motivational beliefs, low Self-determination theorists (e.g., Ryan,
ability, and personal goal orientation (Ryan & Connell, Deci) claim that children start to value
Deci, 2000; Stipek, 2002). For example, the behaviors that they see reinforced, both their
unfavorable beliefs impede the learning process own behaviors and those of the significant others
because they direct the learner’s attention away in their social environments (i.e., teachers,
from the learning activity (Ryan, Gheen, & families). When these values are accepted as
Midgley, 1998; Stipek, 1988). Most students their own (internalization), students begin to
believe their ability and effort are the main choose to engage in activities that are consistent
reasons for school achievement. By the same with their own feelings (Ryan & Deci, 2001).
token, if asked whether they would prefer to be Similarly, according to self-determination
called smart or hard-working, they will choose theory, children learn from their parents and
smart almost every time. Why? Because they other significant adults that achievement
believe that hard-working students risk being behaviors and motivation to learn are valued by
considered either excessively ambitious or of society. Some children internalize these values
limited ability, both of which they would find and behaviors as their own and begin to behave
embarrassing (Stipek, 1988; 2002). in ways that are consistent with them (Connell,
The following literature review covers the 1990). Accordingly, Connell (1990) posited that
significance of young children’s motivation to the need for relatedness, the need for
learn, the effects of the quality of teacher– competence, and the need for autonomy are the
student relationships on their motivation to most important psychological needs in the
learn, and the implications of poorly motivated framework of self-system processes. The self-
young students on their social and academic life. system theory of engagement assumes that
Firstly, two relevant theoretical frameworks are human beings have basic psychological needs
introduced: self-determination and expectancy - and can be motivated to engage in activities
value theory of achievement motivation. These passionately and voluntarily when those needs
theories provide the foundation upon which the are met (Connell & Wellborn, 1991). In
rationale for the present study. addition, in the self-system process, the self
evaluates the degree to which psychological
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needs are met, and this evaluation may affect Expectancy-Value Theory of Achievement
relationships with others (Connell, 1990). Self- Motivation
determination theory shares this perspective
(Davis, 2001; Deci & Ryan, 1985) and has also Expectancy-value theory offers an important
contributed to the construct definition of alternative and complementary theoretical view
relatedness by proposing that an individual’s of student motivation to learn in educational
innate needs (e.g., the need for competence, the settings (Atkinson, 1957; Eccles, Adler,
need for relatedness, and the need for autonomy) Futterman, Goff, Kaczala, Meece, & Midgley,
must be fulfilled to achieve self-regulation, 1983). Eccles and her colleagues (1983) studied
motivation, and personal well-being. Deci and values in the context of an expanded
Ryan (1985) defined the need for relatedness as expectancy-value theory. Their model consists
feelings of security or belongingness in the of two components: a psychological component
social environment that motivate individuals to that focuses on cognitive factors, such as
follow norms and rules. Moreover, all three expectations for success and the values placed
needs are interrelated. For example, relatedness on successful attainment, and a socialization
provides the security that is necessary for component that explains individual differences
student initiative, independence, and autonomy that occur within the variables of the
in completing tasks that promote competence. psychological component. A major premise of
Competence enables students to feel this model involves the influence of parental
confident, accepted, and related to those around socialization on child motivation (Eccles et al.,
them. The healthy fulfillment of these basic 1983; Wigfield, 1994). Like Atkinson (1957),
needs provides a social environment that they posited that people choose to engage in
regulates the amount of acceptance and success tasks that they value and in which they expect to
a student feels (Deci & Ryan, 2002; Urdan & be successful. However, Eccles et al. (1983)
Schoenfelder, 2006). The teacher–student conceptualized and defined values more broadly
relationship is an important and powerful than Atkinson (1957).
motivator for the development of the need for They proposed that there are three kinds of
competence and autonomy within this social values relevant to achievement: attainment
environment because school, as a complex and value, utility value, and intrinsic value (Jacobs &
unique system, asks students to accomplish Eccles, 2000; Wigfield & Eccles, 1992).
various intellectual and social tasks. For Attainment value, which refers to the relevance
example, a growing body of research shows that of an activity to a person’s actual or ideal self-
students who believe that they are competent concept, is determined by how tasks satisfy
academically are more likely to be interested in people’s needs (Eccles et al., 1983). Thus,
academic and school tasks (Skaalvik & Rankin, attainment value is the most closely related of
1995; Malcver, Stipek & Daniels, 1991). the three to internalized motivation in self-
Similarly, when teachers support children’s determination theory. Utility value is related to
basic psychological needs and provide a healthy the usefulness of a task as a means to
classroom environment, they are simultaneously accomplish goals that may not be linked to the
promoting more positive teacher–student task itself. Intrinsic value is defined as the
relationships. Within this type of environment, immediate enjoyment people get from doing a
students report greater levels of competence, task. In other words, when a task has intrinsic
autonomy, and positive relatedness (Connell & value, people engage in it for its own sake,
Wellborn, 1991; Deci & Ryan, 2002; Standage, rather than for some other purpose (Wigfield &
Duda, & Ntoumanis, 2005; Urdan & Eccles, 1992). Furthermore, Eccles et al. (1983)
Schoenfelder, 2006). pointed out that values need to be considered in
the context of costs such as humiliation if failure
occurs.

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Motivation for Academic Achievement Runco, Nemiro, and Walberg (1998) claimed
that creative genius grows out of the ability to
Previous research proposed that the single sustain intense commitment for very long
factor with the greatest impact on whether a periods in the face of obstacles—in other words,
student learns is his or her motivation (Pintrich motivation. In contrast, a widespread belief
& Schunk, 1996; Stipek, 1988, 2000). As holds that accomplishment, and especially
mentioned above, motivation is considered an outstanding accomplishment, is about innate
important, if not the most important, factor talent. People who believe this somehow ignore
influencing student learning. Qin & Wen (2002) the fact that Mozart, Charles Darwin, Michael
found that the presence or absence of motivation Jordan, and Tiger Woods practiced feverishly
is in large part what determines success or and single-mindedly for years, instead believing
failure in second language learning. Motivated that they were simply born with a talent that
students use learning strategies more frequently, cannot be achieved through motivation or any
have a stronger will to learn, and thus set more other controllable factor (Dweck, 2002).
and higher goals for themselves, and they are Proponents of the former belief — that
more persistent in learning. Stipek (1988) motivation and not talent is the core ingredient
pointed out that learning motivation influences for success—have developed various ways to
the learners’ autonomous learning ability and bring that motivation to the classroom to benefit
determines the learners’ confidence in student academic achievement. One major
overcoming learning difficulty. These theories school of thought is called “progressive
demonstrate that motivation, as one of the education.” This approach is centered on the
crucial factors determining success in language importance of genuine student interest
learning, attracts much attention from (Simmons & Page, 2010). A student’s interest or
researchers (Li & Pan, 2009). motivation can stem from innumerable factors
What is motivation? While different and, of course, will vary depending on the
theorists define motivation differently, it is student. Researchers in the field have
commonly thought of as an inner state of need or categorized student motivation into two
desire that activates an individual to do categories: intrinsic and extrinsic. A student who
something to satisfy them. In other words, is intrinsically motivated commits him or herself
motivation is the force that accounts for the to a task for its own sake, that is, for the
arousal, selection, direction, and continuation of enjoyment of it, the learning it allows, and for a
behavior (Li & Pan, 2009). Williams and Burden feeling of accomplishment. A student who is
(2000) proposed the definition of motivation as a extrinsically motivated commits to a task in
state of cognitive and emotional arousal that order to receive a reward from a source external
leads to a conscious decision to act and that to him or herself such as from the teacher
causes the exertion of intellectual and physical (Macabudbud et al., 2009). Understanding these
effort toward reaching a previously set goal. In different motivations is important when
day-to-day language, motivation is why we do translating theoretical ideas about motivating
what we do. Therefore, it is clear why so much students into practical ways to do so.
education research is focused on motivating
students: If motivation is why we do what we The Implications of Young Children’s
do, only a motivated student will learn. It is Motivation to Learn
increasingly accepted in the literature that
motivation is more important to a child’s Many young children begin school with a
education than any other single factor, including thirst for learning. Goldberg (1994) pointed out
the teacher’s skill/experience, classroom that young children enthusiastically seek novel
resources, and so forth (Stipek, 1988, 2002). and challenging school tasks, concluding that
What role does motivation play in motivation is key to successful school
achievement? It has been argued that motivation adjustment. Motivation can be defined as the
is not only the key ingredient in outstanding process that helps instigate goal-directed activity
work but also in extraordinary achievement. and enables that activity to be maintained
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(Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Positive development (e.g., Harter, Whitesell, &
motivational patterns are as crucial for learning Kowalski 1992; Ryan & Connell, 1989; Stipek,
in early childhood as they are for later learning 1988). Similarly, Carlton (1999) showed that
(Carlton & Winsler, 1998). Intrinsic motivation children’s motivation to learn is an important
refers to the desire to participate in a task only predictor of school readiness and the
for the pleasure derived from the task itself, development of social skills.
whereas extrinsic motivation refers to the desire Another important alternative and
to participate in a task for the sake of a desirable complementary theoretical view of students’
outcome such as teacher praise or a reward motivation to learn in educational settings is
(Pintrich & Schunk, 1996). Gottfried (1985) achievement goal theory (Miserandino, 1996).
hypothesized that academic intrinsic motivation Achievement goal theory provides insights for
is positively and significantly related to school examining student motivation and achievement-
achievement. Gottfried found that children who related outcomes (Ames, 1992). Achievement
are more intrinsically motivated are more goals can be defined as the purposes and reasons
successful learners than those with more for a person’s pursuit in achievement situations.
extrinsic motivation. Accordingly, scholars have Different purposes and reasons lead to different
criticized education programs that inhibit the emotional, cognitive, and affective patterns
development of intrinsic motivation in early (Dweck & Leggett, 1988; Urdan & Midgley,
childhood (Brophy, 1998). 2003). Considerable research has shown the
Researchers have sought to understand how effects of achievement goals on student
motivation relates to education and how motivation to learn (e.g., Elliot & McGregor,
motivation affects children’s social and 2001; Elliot & Thrash, 2001). For example,
academic competence. Fortier, Vallerand, and Kaplan, Gheen, and Midgley (2002) examined
Guay (1995) examined the effects of the relationship between classroom goal
autonomous academic motivation on perceived structure and student disruptive behavior. They
academic self-competence and perceived found that student perceptions of a mastery goal
academic self-determination. He showed that structure were related to a lower incidence of
these perceptions positively influenced behavioral problems and disruptive behaviors; in
autonomous academic motivation, which, in comparison, student perceptions of a
turn, had a positive impact on school success performance approach goal structure were
and the development of intrinsic motivation. related to a higher incidence of behavioral
Moreover, Boggiano et al. (1992) found that problems and disruptive behaviors. Ames (1992)
motivational orientation is significantly related pointed out that mastery orientation is associated
to children’s standardized achievement scores. with depth engagement with the task and greater
Specifically, young students with an intrinsic perseverance in the face of failure or barriers;
motivational orientation received higher reading thus, mastery orientation increases the
and math achievement scores than their individual’s intrinsic motivation and, in turn, his
classmates with extrinsic motivational or her motivation to learn.
orientation. Together, these studies indicate that Previous research examining children's
intrinsic motivational orientation contributes to a expectancy-related beliefs about different
range of achievement-related behaviors and achievement tasks showed that these beliefs play
cognitions. a central role in children’s achievement
School readiness, as a multidimensional motivation and contribute to their behavior and
concept, includes children’s approaches to learning (Eccles et al., 1983; Meece & Courtney,
learning (i.e., emergent literacy and math skills) 1992). For example, young children who have
(Kagan & Neuman, 1997). Moreover, school positive ability beliefs and who approach
readiness is a significant indicator of a child’s achievement tasks with a high expectancy of
ability to be successful in school settings. success consistently show high levels of
Previous research with older children has shown persistence and performance on achievement
motivation to be an important factor for tasks (Eccles et al., 1983). Similarly, children’s
learning, academic success, and social expectancies and values are most directly
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affected by their achievement goals, their self- A number of researchers have also shown
schemata, and their task-specific beliefs. Values that young children's beliefs about their abilities
also influence college students’ intentions and and expectancies for success are overly
decisions about course enrollment (Meece & optimistic and are not realistic (e.g., Stipek &
Courtney, 1992). Furthermore, values affect the MacIver, 1989; Wigfield, Eccles, MacIver,
perception of self-competence and self-esteem Reuman, & Midgley, 1991). Young children
(Eccles et al., 1983). Accordingly, Dweck and perceive themselves as competent, and they
Elliott (1983) posited that learning and nearly always think that they will be successful
performance goals are determined by children’s on upcoming tasks. However, as children
subjective values. For instance, a child’s progress through elementary school, their ability
achievement environment influences his or her beliefs and expectancies for success may
subjective values. The child who believes he or demonstrate a substantial change, and their
she is competent at a certain task believes that beliefs about their ability and expectancies
achievement of similar tasks in the future is become more accurate and realistic (Stipek,
possible and easy, showing that competence 1988 Wigfield & Eccles, 1992). Although there
belief and expectancy for success are directly can be age-related differences in children’s
related (Eccles et al., 1983; Wigfield & Eccles, motivational belief, perceived academic self-
1992). For example, achievement values in competence, perceived academic self-
school tasks (i.e., mathematics) can influence determination, the quality of teacher–student
self-perceptions of competence (Covington, relationships, and the classroom achievement
1992). goal structure also play a significant role in
Previous research also suggests that early young students’ motivation to learn and their
achievement and socialization experiences and motivational beliefs (Eccles et al., 1983; Pianta,
cultural norms can influence how elementary 1999; Stipek, 2002). Therefore, it is crucial to
and high school students understand, interpret, further investigate and demonstrate the effects of
and approach achievement (Eccles et al. 1983; these aforementioned factors on young
Meece, Parsons, Kaczala, Goff, & Futterman, children’s motivation to learn, and in turn, how
1982). Similarly, studies of junior and senior young children’s motivation to learn influences
high school students demonstrated that the the development of social and academic
subjective task values adolescents attach to competence.
school subjects are related to their course plans
and activity choices (Eccles, Adler, & Meece, Teacher–Student Relationships and Young
1984). For example, in their study of junior high Children’s Motivation to Learn
school students, Meece and colleagues (1990)
found that the importance students attached to It is widely recognized that when children
mathematics predicted their intentions to enter school or transition to the next level, they
continue taking mathematics. Eccles and Harold encounter a variety of new challenges, such as
(1991) examined adolescents' self-perceptions of creating positive relationships with peer groups
ability, subjective task values, and activity and adults in the school environment and
choices in sports. They reported that adolescents' learning to meet the demands of a wide range of
self-reports of free-time involvement in sports cognitive, social, and academic tasks (Baker,
was significantly related to their subjective task 2006; Birch & Ladd, 1997; Pianta et al., 1995).
values of sports. However, few studies have Teacher–child relationships play a prominent
investigated the effects of motivation to learn on role in the development of competencies in the
young children. Accordingly, focusing on young preschool and early school years (Hamre &
school children's expectations and values using Pianta, 2001; Pianta & Walsh, 1996). Teachers
the expectancy-value model may contribute to may operate as social agents, and they can affect
our understanding about children's development students’ intellectual and socio-emotional
of motivational values and expectancy in early experiences by creating a classroom setting that
school years. stimulates both student motivation and learning.
Moreover, teacher–student relationships serve a
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Motivation to Learn Koca

regulatory function for the development of Previous research has also alluded to a
social, emotional, and academic skills (Davis, significant relationship between student adaptive
2006). Similarly, young children who enjoy motivation for academics and a number of social
receiving positive support from teachers and factors within the classroom (e.g., Patrick,
having warm and close relationships with them Hicks, & Ryan, 1997; Patrick, Ryan, & Kaplan,
appear to demonstrate social and academic 2007; Ryan & Patrick, 2001). These include
competence at school (Pianta, 1999). teacher–student relationships, teacher support
A growing body of research has examined (Midgley, Feldlaufer, & Eccles, 1989), and
the effects of the quality of teacher–student teacher practices that foster respect among
dyadic interaction on student academic students (Patrick et al., 2007; Ryan & Patrick,
motivation (e.g., Davis & Ashley, 2003; Pianta, 2001;). Similarly, Patrick, Anderman, Ryan,
1999). The degree to which children develop Edelin, and Midgley (2001) examined how
social and academic competencies in their teacher–student interaction influences both
school lives is a good indicator of successful classroom goal-orientation structures. They
school adaptation and positive teacher and peer found that teachers’ apparent support and
relationships (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Pianta et al., enthusiasm toward students’ progress, and their
1995). For example, Davis and Ashley (2003) confidence in students’ ability to learn were
reported that positive teacher–student interaction accompanied by teachers’ teaching styles such
enhanced classroom learning and student as child-centered and teacher-centered.
motivation by building a safe and supportive Their relationships with students were
context for students to become motivated for characterized by supporting student academic
learning and take intellectual risks. In addition, engagement and giving warm praise. Teachers
teachers in this study believed that students encouraged their students to focus on task and
tended to work hard if they liked their teachers informational feedback. In the mastery-approach
and had caring relations with them. Therefore, classrooms, all teachers perceived learning as an
teachers in Davis and Ashley’s study preferred active process in which classroom involvement,
to invest time and effort in the development of positive interactions, understanding (not
supportive relationships with their students. In memorization), and student engagement were
addition, those positive and caring relationships key requirements of student academic
encouraged the teachers to be creative in their achievement and motivation. On the other hand,
instruction. one teacher in a low-mastery classroom did not
Davis (2006) found that middle school show respect in his interactions with students,
students and teachers who perceived their and he always voiced negative expectations
relations as supportive and positive reported about his students. Similarly, Ames (1992)
enhanced motivation, more facilitative reported that mastery-oriented classrooms offer
classroom settings, and higher grades. Similarly, an environment where the teacher focuses on
Birch and Ladd (1997) found that supportive improvement, effort, and individual mastery; in
teacher–student relationships play an important contrast, extrinsically oriented classrooms
role in developing school adjustment (performance approach and performance
competencies including attention, motivation, avoidance) emphasize grades, social
problem-solving, and self-esteem. When comparison, and correction without
teachers provided more autonomy and the informational feedback.
instruction addressed students’ personal interests Roth, Assor, Kanat-Maymon, and Kaplan
and had personal relevance, students were more (2007) pointed out that a sense of autonomy
emotionally and behaviorally engaged in school within classroom settings helped both the
work and they had more supportive relationships student and the teacher. Roth and his colleagues
with their teachers (Birch & Ladd). Similarly, (2007) found that when the teachers supported
other studies have found that students who student needs of self-determination and self-
report that their teachers provide higher levels of perception within a classroom with a degree of
autonomy show more adaptive patterns of autonomy, students were academically more
learning (David & Ashley, 2003; Stipek, 2002). motivated to learn mathematics.
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Motivation to Learn Koca

Additionally, a teacher’s sense of well-being The first step to motivating students is
and success within the classroom climate encouraging their belief that they have the
influences the quality of the teacher–student potential to succeed. A student who believes, for
relationship. This relationship, in turn, has example, that intelligence is a fixed trait that
positive effects on student outcomes, teachers’ cannot be developed will not be motivated to
and students’ perceptions, and motivational work hard—why bother if his or her potential is
strategies, contributing to improved effective predetermined and capped? It is the educator’s
outcomes and goals. Previous researchers have responsibility—as much as it is to convey
shown that teachers’ individual perceptions and information on academic subjects—to convey
the differences they bring to their classroom the idea that intelligence is a malleable quality, a
environments are becoming increasingly potential that can be cultivated. Teachers who
recognized as fundamental contributors show students that the latter is true set the
influencing the way they teach and how they groundwork for student motivation (Dwek,
motivate and engage their students (Brophy & 2002).
Good, 1974; Hardré & Sullivan, 2008; Skinner One approach to showing students that they
& Belmont, 1993). Hardré and Sullivan (2008) are capable—“progressive education”—involves
noted that differences within teachers’ own transferring the power to learn to the students.
qualities and experiences and the way that they Progressive education is based on the theory that
interact with their students influence how they a democratic classroom will lead to more
motivate their students. Of increasing interest to engaged students. It follows the pretense that
researchers is the relationship among a teacher’s unless students are given power, they may exert
motivational style, the specific teaching what little power they have to thwart learning
strategies they use, and the influence these have and achievement through inappropriate behavior
on the motivation and engagement of both and/or mediocrity. The solution, according to
students and the teacher within a learning progressive education, is for teachers to give
experience (e.g., Skinner, Furrer, Marchand, & students a voice. This is particularly important in
Kindermann, 2008; Urdan & Schoenfelder, the current educational climate, which is
2006. dominated by standardization and testing. This
In sum, positive teacher–student democratic classroom can be created by giving
relationships can contribute to a warm classroom students opportunities to ask questions, create
environment that facilitates successful knowledge, examine social issues, and further
adaptation in school and thereby increases engage in critical thinking (Simmons & Page,
students’ motivation to learn. On the other hand, 2010). Objections to progressive education
conflictual teacher–student relationships are include that students allowed to take charge will
associated with lower achievement and lower be undisciplined, will not do homework, will
self-esteem as well as ongoing relational conflict refuse to take tests, and otherwise will turn a
with peers (Buyse et al., 2008; Hamre & Pianta, potentially productive unconventional approach
2005). Moreover, the teachers’ beliefs regarding into a detrimental lack of decorum. However,
high-quality relationships with their students evidence suggests that at least in most
enhance classroom learning and motivation. mainstream classrooms, this would not be the
Establishing a safe and supportive classroom case.
context for students helps them to open up and One team of researchers set out to test these
listen to the teachers and to take intellectual objections. They constructed heterogeneous
risks (Birch & Ladd, 1997; Pianta et al., 1995). groups to promote a democratic environment
Therefore, teacher–student relationships play a and motivate students in the class and gave the
key role in children’s motivation to learn and students the power to set academic standards for
school adjustment. themselves. The class created a grading system
and the students set high standards for
How Can Young Students Be Motivated? themselves. They did not use the opportunity to
set the low standards or slack off; rather, the
students set the bar high and were motivated to
9
Motivation to Learn Koca

reach it because it had value to them—it was not (neither too easy nor too difficult); provide
arbitrary in their eyes or imposed on them by feedback that is not evaluative of the person;
force. Further, because they came up with the give a meaningful rationale for requested
standards, students held their peers accountable behavior, acknowledging feelings; and set up
for meeting those standards. These results were cooperative learning opportunities. Researchers
unprecedented, even among motivated students have found that students in autonomy-supportive
who are aiming to reach externally imposed classrooms as compared with students in
standards (Simmons & Page, 2010). classrooms with controlling teachers are more
An essential element of this experimental likely to stay in school (Vallerand, Fortiet, &
democratic classroom was motivation through Guay, 1997) and are more likely to show greater
creative freedom. At the beginning of the perceived academic competence (Deci,
experiment, students, out of habit, sought Schwartz, Sheinmann, & Ryan, 1981), higher
permission for everything they did, but the academic intrinsic motivation (Deci, Nezlek, &
teachers were told to direct it back to the group. Sheinman, 1981), better academic performance
In other words, when a group of students would (Boggiano, Fink, Shields, Seelbach, & Barrett,
ask if they could do something, the teachers 1993), and higher academic achievement (Fink,
asked the students if they thought it was a good Boggiano, Main, Barrett, & Katz, 1992).
idea. If the students wanted to take their project
in a certain direction, they were encouraged to Poor Motivation in the Early Years of School
make that decision on their own. This motivated
students to answer their own questions by When students are motivated, they learn
anticipating the teacher’s questions. better; when student are not motivated they are
Additionally, this approach kept the students at a disadvantage that is difficult if not
more engaged because they were in control. The impossible to compensate for with high-quality
creative freedom granted them made room for teachers and other resources. For example,
productive exploration. The most important Stipek (2002) examined mathematics learning in
finding in this research was that when students elementary school and found that students with
were left to design their own learning, not only more motivation always achieved greater
did they not avoid learning, they set their success; those lacking motivation did not put
standards higher and worked harder because forth the effort required to succeed and often
they were more motivated (Simmons & Page, failed exams. Again, if a student is not
2010). motivated, he or she is unlikely to achieve
The lessons learned in this experiment can academic success regardless of the teacher or
be applied in classrooms in simple yet effective curricula. In contrast, highly motivated students
ways, such as simply allowing students to work can succeed in a wide range of conditions,
with their peers, to choose how they want to including sub-optimal conditions in external
present their knowledge of a subject, and to have areas such as lack of resources.
a voice in their grade and the grades of their The aforementioned research has shown that
peers. By using these methods in the classroom, motivating students is a basic, integral part of
teachers can motivate their students to become teaching—without it very little, if anything will
active participants in their own education instead be learned. Motivation, together with increased
of bystanders waiting to be told what to do, competency, allows a student the will to apply
when to do it, and how it should be done him or herself and the tools with which to do it,
(Simmons & Page, 2010). making motivation at least as essential to
A similar model of teaching is called academic achievement as presenting the material
autonomy-supportive teaching. In this model, to be learned (Eccles et al., 1983; Stipek, 2002).
teachers provide students with choice; encourage Research shows that motivated students not only
student experimentation and self-initiation; learn better but also use power responsibly
foster students’ willingness to take on (Eccles, Adler, & Meece, 1984; Meece,
challenges, explore new ideas, and persist at Wigfield, & Eccles, 1990; Simmons & Page,
difficult activities; offer optimal challenges 2010; Stipek, 2002). Having a real sense of
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