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education sciences Article Teaching for Justice in a Contradictory World GeorgeReilly Burgstrasse82b,52074Aachen,Germany;[email protected];Tel.:+49-241-872-664 AcademicEditor:JudithKönemann Received:1August2016;Accepted:30December2016;Published:5January2017 Abstract: Schooltodayiscaughtinthedilemmaofbeingexpectedtoeducateyoungpeoplesothat theycanbeintegratedintomodernindustrialsociety. Becauseofstructuralinjusticesinsociety,not allstudentshaveequalchancesinthisintegrationprocess. Educationinschoolisalsoexpectedto impartproficiencyinskillswhichgobeyondthefunctionalskillswhichaproductivesocietyneeds. Thesesofterskillscanthreatentheaimsofmodernsocietybecausetheyhavethepotentialtoquestion its underlying rationale. Young people learn these skills in their everyday lives with their peers outsideofschool. Theyformpartoftheculturalwealthwhichstudentsbringwiththemtoschool. Itisuptoschooltodrawonthisculturalwealthofstudentsandtofosterthevariousformsofcultural capital contained therein so that students learn not to be victims of a one-sided schooling which reproducesthoseinjusticesthatpervademodernsocietybyplacingexcessvalueonculturalassets whicharefavoredbydominantgroupsinsociety. Keywords:contradiction;self-determinedagency;culturalpractice;identity;empowerment;symbolic creativity;everydaytactics;culturalwealth;imaginativelanguage;resistance;socialorder 1. Introduction “Somethingisrotteninthestateof... ” OnehasthefeelingthatthisfamouslinefromShakespeare’sHamletcouldbeappliedtoanystate intheworldtoday. Thereportsonfinancial,politicalandotherscandalsthroughouttheworldwhich floodthemedianearlyeverydaygivetheimpressionthatthereisindeedsomethingverywrongabout thestateofthepresentworld. Thisisnottheplacetoenumeratethecountries,theinstitutions,the personsinvolved. Letitsufficetosaythatitisnowonderthatcountlessyoungpeopleturntheirbacks onthosecountries,institutionsandpersonswhichorwhoclaimtobemoralauthorities. Theyoung arequicktoseethediscrepancybetweenthemoralclaimsheldbyleadingauthoritiesandtheway thesesameauthoritiesconducttheirownaffairs. Thecontradictioninvolvedisnamedandisbranded asinacceptable. InthispaperIwanttotakeambivalenceandcontradiction,whicharefundamentalcharacteristics ofmoderneducation,asthestartingpointofmyreflection. Itisanambivalenceinwhichasuggested equityineducationisshowntofailthelitmustestofsocialreality. Educationhasthetaskoffacing uptothiscontradictionandofneverthelessstrivingtoempoweryoungpeopletocontroltheirown destinies. Thistaskhastobeaddressednotonlyasastructuralproblemineducationaltheorybutalso asamoralissueintheclassroom. 2. ContradictionsinEducationalSystems AmainachievementofKarlMarxwastohavepointedoutthatcontradictionisnotjustamatter of personal failure or shortcoming. He showed that it is an essential feature of capitalist society. Heunmaskedthe(supposed)autonomyandequalityonthepartofthosewhobycontractselltheir labourtothosewhoareinpossessionofthemeansofproduction. Hecouldshowthisequalityto bearelationshipofabstractsubjectswhenexaminedinthelightofwhatthepartiesobtainfortheir Educ.Sci.2017,7,10;doi:10.3390/educsci7010010 www.mdpi.com/journal/education Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 2of10 respectivepartofthecontract. Thelabourerwhosellshislabourdoesnotgetthefullvalueofthe productinreturnforwhathislabourproduces. Asupposedequalityconcealstherealinequalitywhich existsbetweenthecontractingparties. In the twentieth century this fundamental contradiction came to be seen as not being just a fundamental characteristic of the relationship of the working class to the class of the owners of production,butalsoasbeingacharacteristicofeducationalsystemsinmodernsocieties[1](pp. 28–30). School is confronted with a number of dilemmas. It is caught up in the dilemma between being assigned the function of qualifying young people for positions in industrial societies according to theirabilitiesandofselectingtheyoungforthesepositionsonmeritocraticgrounds. Itisnotclear howeverwhichsubjectmattershouldbetaughttomeettheneedsofarapidlychangingindustrial world,andmoreimportantforthetopicofthispaper,itisclearthatthemeritocraticsysteminherent intheschoolsystemsofindustrialsocietiesisbasedontheassumptionofequalchanceforallstudents, asupposedequitywhichdoesnotbearoutwithreality. Students’abilitiesarenotbyanymeansequal, notbecauseofanyinherentlackonthepartofthepupilsthemselvesbutratherbecauseofthevast differenceswhicharetobefoundinthesocialenvironmentsinwhichtheywerebornintoandgrow upin. Thesedifferencesseemtobequitestubbornandmanypupilsleaveschoolwithoutmanaging tooffsettheseinitialdisadvantagesinthecourseoftheirschoolcareer. Becauseofthistheselection functionofschoolcanalsobealatentmotorinthereproductionoftheinjusticeofsocialinequality. SurveyssuchasthePisatestsshowthatthereisadefinitecorrelationbetweensuccessatschool andone’ssocialbackground[2]. Thedominantcultureunderlyingschoolcurriculafavoursthosewho arealreadyequippedwithwhatisconsideredtobethenecessaryculturalcapitaltobeabletocometo termswithit. Neverthelesssuchstructuralfeaturesofschooleducationshouldnotforceablindeyeon thepotentialinherentinyoungpeoples’abilitytomakeself-determinedchoicesintheirendeavour togivetheirexistenceameaningfulshapeinthefaceofthevarietyofcontingencieswhichtheyare confrontedwithintheirlives. Animportantaspectofjusticehastodowithhowmuchindividualsaremastersoftheirown placeinthisworld. Ithastodowiththecapacityofindividualstoactinaself-determinedwayand educationhasthetaskofempoweringpeopletobeagentsinthissense. Thiscorrespondstosome extentwithaninherentneedinmodernindustrialsocietiesforschoolingtogobeyondtheimpartingof purelyfunctionalskillsandqualifications. Thereisalsoaneedforthedevelopmentoftheabilitytobe creative,tobecooperativeinteam-work,tohavetheabilitytomakecriticaljudgement. Buttheability tobecriticalcouldquestionforexampletheethicalqualityofwhatacompanyproduces. Thesemore reflectivequalificationshavethepotentialthereforeofrunningcontrarytoschools’functionofjust adaptingpupilstothefunctionalneedsofindustry. Thismeansthereisafundamentalconflictin modernschool: itsfunctionalaimofintegratingyoungpeopleintomodernindustrialsocietyisat oddswithschool’scapacitytounderminethisintegratingfunction. 3. SchoolandtheCulturalProcessoftheConstitutionofIdentity Lookingatthisdilemmaofschoolingfromthepointofviewofculturalpracticecanbeauseful wayofpinpointingwhatisatstakeanditcanalsopointtowardsanacceptablewayofdealingwithit. Ashasalreadybeensaidaboveoneofthemajorgoalsofeducationistoempoweryoungpeople asagentsintheconstructionoftheiridentities.Cultureisamajorfactorintheconstitutionoftheability todevelopone’sownsubjectivityandidentity. Cultureheremeansthewayindividualsorgroupsof peoplehandletherawmaterialoftheirsocialandmaterialexistenceinordertodeveloptheirown specificwaysoflifewiththeirowndistinctformsofexpressionasanetworkofmeaning. Subjectivity andsuccessfulidentityaretheresultofhavingbeenenabledandempoweredtopursueone’sown meaninginlifeinaprocessofconstantexchangewithotherswhoarealsoendeavouringtobuilda meaningfulexistenceforthemselves.Schoolisanimportantareaofculturalpracticewherethispursuit shouldtakeplace. Thequestionishowdoesculturalpracticeatschoolfitinwiththetwofoldfunction ofschoolmentionedabove:itsfunctionofintegratingyoungpeopleintomodernindustrialsocietyand Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 3of10 school’ssubversivepotentialwhichhasthecapacityofrunningcontrarytoitsintegratingfunction? Doesschoolhelpenableandempoweryoungpeopletodeveloptheirownauthenticmeaninginlife which should also entail becoming aware of one’s social reality and of adopting a critical attitude towards existing structures in society? Or is it more inclined to further the development of those qualificationswhicharemoreinlinewiththatwhichanindustrialsocietydeemstobedesirableand evennecessaryforitsownsurvivalandgrowth? Cultural Studies in the Birmingham tradition has contributed a tremendous amount to the empiricalinvestigationofhowindividualsconstitutetheiridentitythroughthemeaningfulhandling ofwhatisavailabletothemintheireverydaylives. Therawmaterialforthishandlingisfoundinthe socialandmaterialrelationshipsofeverydayexperience. Youngpeoplefindthismaterial,forexample, whereitisdisplayedandofferedforsaleintheshoppingmallstheyfrequent. Inshoppingwiththeir peersyoungpeopleexperimentwiththeiridentity. Inthechoiceoftheclothingtheybuytheyworkon thecompositionoftheiridentitiesinexchangewiththeirpeers. Thisactinginaself-determinedway generatesmeaningandittakesplacewithinthesocialcontactstheysharewiththeirpeers. Thepublic exchange with their peers is important because what is subjectively meaningful is meaningful in anintersubjectivesensewhenitisrecognisedassuchbyone’speers. Intheprocessofthispublic exchangetheindividualnegotiationofwhatismeaningfulbecomesvisible,itbecomesalife-style. Becausenobignarrativeexistsanylongerwhichcouldlaydownastandardforwhatisconsideredto bemeaningful,youngpeoplehavetorelyontheirowncapacitiesforcopingwiththecontingencies whichtheyareconfrontedwith. Withtheirpeerstheyhavetodevelopacapacityforframingtheirlives inameaningfulway.Thisself-determinedagencyentailsaradicalfragmentationandcontextualisation ofmeaning. Itbecomesincreasinglycontradictoryandcomplex. Cultureinthissenseisnotstatic, norisituniform. Itisanall-embracingwholewhichincludesculturaltexts,experiencesandsocial practices. Itisadimensionofsocialrealitywhichascommoncultureisembeddedineverydaylife. Centraltothisideaofcultureisthatitismediatedandinfluencedbytheeconomicandsocial structuresinwhichittakesplace. Itcanconfirmrelationshipsofdifferenceandofinequalitybutitalso hasthepotentialofbeingabletoshifttheserelationshipsandmakethemmoreflexible. Anadequate analysisofcultureseesitasanaggregateofpracticesthatcanbecarriedoutwithinaframeworkof powerandofimpotenceineverydaylife. But in what way do social practices of power influence the formation of identity? Antonio Gramsci’s concept of cultural hegemony [3] shows how cultural practice is substantially relatedtorelationshipsofpowerandimpotence. Hisconceptofculturalhegemonyoffersanimportant theoreticalframeworkforunderstandinghowthedominantcultureineducationalsystemssuchas schoolsworks. Hedescribeshowgroupsinsocietygainandmaintaintheirsupremacybyvirtueof subtlestrategiesofconsentandnotbyopenformsofpressure. Supremacygroupsusetheirconcepts and cognitivestructuresto understandand explainthe worldaroundthem. Theirunderstanding of the world becomes then the ‘natural’ and the only legitimate one. It becomes the dominant cultureofschool,permeatingthecurricula,theexpectationsoftheteachersandtheleaving-certificate examinations. Theaimofthedominantcultureofthesesupremacygroupsistointegratethecultures, thewayofthinkingandtheexperiencesofinferiorgroupsintotheirwayofconstructingtheworld. Thisinducesinferiorgroupstointerprettheirownworldandtheirownexperiencesinamannerthat ispredeterminedbythedominantculture. Becausetheyarenotinpossessionofanadequateamount ofculturalcapitaltobeabletodealwiththeresourcestheyareconfrontedwithatschooltheyfailin comparisonwiththosepeerswhoaremoreacquaintedwithandhaveadoptedtheparametersofthe dominantculture. Thiscanleadthedisadvantagedtolosingtheirself-esteemandtothemfindingit extremelydifficulttomakeasuccessoftheirschoolcareer. Despitetheculturalpredominanceofsupremacygroupstherewillalwaysbesomepeoplewho willquestionthehegemonicclaimoftheadvantagedintheirsupposedlynaturalunderstandingof social reality. Although not being recognised as being on a par with the dominant culture of the supremacygroupsthedisadvantagedinsocietydeveloptheirownformsofculturalpracticewhich Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 4of10 give expression to their understanding of the world. This way cultural practice becomes an area where social differences (class, gender, ethnical origin, etc.) and their understanding of the world areconstitutedandconfirmed,ornegated. Culturebecomesanareawhereconflictingideasabout meaningconfronteachotherandthismeansconflictssurroundingculturalhegemony. Thoseyoungpeoplewhodonotconformtothedominantculturehaveaccesstospacesother thanschoolintheireverydayliveswheretheycanbringtheircreativitytobearontheconstructionof theiridentities. PaulWillishasanalysedtheeverydayaestheticsof‘commonculture’whichyoung peopledevelopintheirconfrontationwiththecommoditieswhichtheconsumerindustryoffers[4]. Itisoftenthoughtthatyoungpeoplearecompletelyatthemercyoftheprofitinterestsandmarketing strategiesofthebigbrands. Acloserlookatthecapitalistmarkethowevershowsthatprofitinterests and successful sales are just one side of the market. The active symbolic acquisition of consumer goodsistheotherside. Goodsonsalelayoutnewfieldsofsemioticpossibilitieswhichyoungpeople appropriateforthepurposeofpositioningthemselvesculture-wiseandwithwhichtheycanconstruct theirownexpressiveidentities. Theychoosethatwhichservestherepresentationandinterpretationof theirworld,irrespectiveoftheinterestsofthecapitalistconsumerindustry. Williscalledthis‘symbolic creativity’. Intheactiveacquisitionofconsumercommoditiesaprocessofacculturationtakesplacein whichtheconsumerinaninteractionwithhispeersconstructsanewformofexpressivesubjectivity. Thisprocessdoesnotchangethesocialstatusoftheindividualbutitdoesextendtherangeofhis abilitytoact,ofhisagency. Theimportantpointaboutthissymboliccreativityisthatitissomething carriedoutbythepersonsthemselvesontheirowninitiativeinaspacechosenbythemselves. Itisan importantstepinbuildingupself-confidenceandintakingcontrolovertheirownlives. This symbolic activity, which would be called ‘tactics’ by Michel de Certeau, is to be seen as standinginoppositiontothe‘strategies’orinterestsofestablishedinstitutions[5]. Disadvantaged groupsinsocietywhohavetocometotermssomewayorotherwiththesocialandpoliticalpowersof thisworldmanagetocarveoutareasforthemselveswheretheydevelopsubtletacticsintheirevery daypracticesassilentandcreativeformsofresistanceagainsttheimposedorder. Thisresistanceisnot articulatedinanydiscursiveway.Itisimplicitineverydaypractices.Ittakesplaceinthewaythegiven iscreativelyappropriatedbytheindividual. Theestablishedorderisnotradicallychangedbythese everydaytacticsbuttheseareenhancedasimaginativeforceswhichcapitalistconsumerismcannot stifle. Thereisatrickytensionbetweenthatwhichisgiven,whichisimposedbythepredominant orderofthingsandthatwhichismadepossibleinthecreativetacticsofeverydaysocialpractices. The creativity in the agency involved in everyday tactics has the potential to unwittingly initiate changesinthesocialorder,changeswhichwillnotbeimmediatelynoticedbutwhichasawholedo contributetoamorejustsociety. Inasimilarvein,JohnFiskeinhisanalysisofthereceptionoffilmsandtelevisionserieshasshown thatpeoplewholiveunderinferiorconditionsusetheresourcesprovidedbytheculturalindustryina waywhichdoesnotcorrespondtotheintentionsoftheproducers[6](pp. 63and80). Theirreception ofresourcestakesplaceonthebasisoftheirsocialexperiences. Texts(allformsofpopularcultureare consideredtobetexts)haveasemanticsurplusofmeaning(polysemy)whichliesbeyondthecontrol oftheiracceptedanddominantinterpretation. Thissurplusallowstherecipienttointerpretthetextin awaynotintendedbytheproducer. Thereceptionandinterpretationofatextisparticipatoryculture. Itisaformofresistance,atermwhichFiskeusestoreferto“therefusaltoacceptthesocialidentity proposedbythedominantideologyandthesocialcontrolthatgoeswithit”[6](p. 241). Participatory culturebecomesaplaceofsocialcontentionabouttheproduction,aboutthemaintenanceandabout theattainmentofsymbolicpower. Increasinglyawarenessisgrowingthattheconstructionandtheshapingoflifeinameaningful wayisaculturalprocesscarriedoutbyactiveindividualswhoarecontextualisedinsociety. Schoolis partofthisculturalprocess. Theaimoftheanalysisofthisprocessineverydaypracticeswantsto callattentiontoperspectivesandpossibilitiesofinterveninginthestruggleforajustanddemocratic transformationofsociety. Theaimisnotjusttocarryoutresearchonhowrelationshipsofpower Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 5of10 in society are constituted in and through culture. It is also to point out and help people augment possibilitiesofself-determinedagencyintheirlivessothattheycanlearntoseethesocietalcontextof theirconcretesituationinlife,torecognisepossibilitiesofchangeandtograspthemwhenpossible. Ananalysisoftherelationshipsofpoweranddifferenceineverydayculturalpracticeshastheaimof identifyingpossibilitieswhereself-determinedagencycanbebroadenedwithachangetoamorejust andbetterworldinmind. Thatentailsontheonehandanalysinghowpowerrelationshipsinfiltrate people’severydaylivesandhowtheycanlimitaperson’sprospectsofleadingadignifiedexistence. On the other hand it means highlighting individual possibilities of active participation in society. Thisdoesnotmeanthattheoutcome,asocietywhichmightbealittlemorejust,canbeguaranteed asapurposefulresultofthisparticipation. Augmentedself-determinedagencyisinitselfhowevera formofsocialchangetowardsmorejusticeinsociety. School has a responsibility in contributing towards the augmentation of self-agency and in that way can also make its contribution to the achievement of more justice. In order to meet this responsibilityitisimportantthateducationtheoryandpedagogyunderstandschool,teachingand learningasculturalprocesseswhereagencycanbeknowinglycultivated. Thereflectionsaboveshow thatyoungpeopledoindeedavailofspaceswhereself-agencycanbepractised. Itisuptoschoolto makesurethatitsculturalworkdoesnotfallbehindinitsshareofthetaskofpromotingtheabilityto activelyparticipateinshapingajustsociety. 4. TeachersasCulturalWorkers Thepathtowardssocialequityineducationisnotjustamatterofacriticalreflectiononyouth anditsabilitytoexplorecreativeoptionsinattainingsomeformofcontrolovertheirownlives. Italso meansthatteachersneedtoreflectontherationaleunderlyingthewaytheyconducttheirprofession sothattheycanbebetterfacilitatorsinhelpingstudentsbecomemoreawareoftheirsocialrealityand learntodiscovertheirowncreativepotentialindefiningtheiraspirationsinthefaceofthechallenges whichtheyareconfrontedwithinthiscontradictoryworld. HenryGirouxadvocatestheimportanceofteachersbeingcriticalthinkersandnotjustsupposedly neutralperformersofwhatisconsideredtobeeffectiveteaching[7]. Ateacherisnotjustanexpert in imparting practical skills. Very often management issues, efficiency and imparting functional skills seem to dominate the idea of what is deemed to be the proper way teachers should work. Contrarytobeingjustneutralperformersteachersplayanimportantroleinthecreationandvalidation ofpolitical,economicandsocialintereststhroughtheeducationalrationaleunderlyingtheireveryday task. Teachingshouldbeconsideredtobeademandingtaskinwhichtheteacherisactivelyinvolved inproducingteachingandlearningmaterialsandincreatinglearningsituationswhichfitthecultural andsocialcontextsinwhichtheyteach,whichpromoteresponsibleagencyonthepartofthestudents withaviewtothembecomingactivecitizensinademocraticandjustsociety. Theintellectualtask whichthisentailsinvolvestakinganactiveresponsibilityinaskingfundamentalquestionsaboutwhat theyactuallyteach,andespeciallyaboutthebroaderaimswhichtheywishtoachieve,abouttheir roleindevelopingademocraticandjustsociety. Thesequestionstouchonissuesaboutschoolasa spacewhereculturalworktakesplace. Theteachershouldreflectonthisculturalworkasbeingtiedto mattersofpowerrelationshipsunderlyingtheculturalartefactswhichheusesasteachingandlearning resources. Itisimportantthatthattheteacherasks: inwhatwaycantheresourcesheorsheisusingin theclassroomhelpstudentstovoicetheirownviewsandfeelingsaboutwhatisbeingtaught? Toput itintermsborrowedfromTaraJ.Yosso’snotionof‘culturalwealth’(acriticalexpansionofBourdieu’s conceptof‘culturalcapital’)[8](pp. 77–81),butinadifferentkey[9]:whichresourcescanateacheruse tohelpstudentsexpressanddeveloptheiraspirationalcapital(‘theabilitytoholdontohopeintheface ofstructuredinequalityandoftenwithoutthemeanstomakesuchdreamsareality’),theirlinguistic capital(‘theintellectualandsocialskillsattainedthroughcommunicationexperiencesinmorethanone languageand/orstyle’),theirfamilialcapital(‘referstothoseculturalknowledgesnurturedamong familia (kin) that carry a sense of community history, memory and cultural intuition’), their social Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 6of10 capital(‘networksofpeopleandcommunityresources... ’which‘canprovidebothinstrumentaland emotionalsupporttonavigatethroughsociety’sinstitutions’), theirnavigationalcapital(‘refersto skillsofmaneuveringthroughsocialinstitutions’),andtheirresistantcapital(‘refersthoseknowledges andskillsfosteredthroughoppositionalbehaviorthatchallengesinequality’)? Thefollowingsection willdelineateanumberofclassroompossibilitieswithaviewtofosteringandnurturingthesevarious formsofculturalwealth. 5. TheClassroom: JusticeasaMoralIssueinReligiousEducation Religious education in a school setting [10] is confronted with the conflicting expectations and settings which characterise modern educational systems. On its own it cannot change these expectationsandsettingsbutitcanfosterthecreativeandempoweringelementofeducationbygiving students the opportunity of voicing their own experiences and visions of what is just and unjust (‘aspirational’and‘linguistic’capital). Youngpeoplehavetheirownideasonjustice. Thesehavebeen examinedatlengthinthecourseofvariousprojectsemanatingfromthe‘elementarisation’approach which was initially developed at the University of Tübingen in Germany under the direction of K.E.NipkowandF.Schweitzer. WeareindebtedtoNipkow[11](pp. 27–63)forthefollowingsections onjusticeasamoralissueinteachingandlearning. InaprojectwhichanalysedlessonsinreligiouseducationonGod,justiceandparablesonefocus wasonthecreativityofyoungpeopleintheseareasinaclassroomsetting. Biblicalstoriesareagood startingpointtofindoutwhatkindofideasyoungpeoplehaveinmindwhentheyareconfronted withsituationswhichtouchupontheideaofjustice. Theparable(Matthew18: 25–35)abouttheslave whooweshismasterahugesumofmoneyandwhosedebtiscancelledbyhismasterbutwhohe himselfisnotwillingtocancelthedebtofafellow-slaveandwhomhehasthrownintoprisonprovides agoodplatformforconfrontingthepupilswithabiblicalanswertoissuesofjusticesurroundingthe problemofdebtandtheirownsolutionstothisproblem,aproblemwhichisstillvirulenttoday. Inareligiouseducationlessonwhichwasanalysedindetailoneofthepupilsstoodoutamong theothersinpleadingforamercifulactofforgivenesswhichwoulddiscontinuethespiralchainof never-endingdebt. Thispupilseemstohavegraspedtheideathatonlyadifferentkindofjusticeand forgivenessisabletocometotermswiththeunrelentingchainofdebt. Amercifulactofannulment, carriedoutwithoutsettinganyconditions,istheonlywaytoovercometheveryhumanwishtosee thatthedebtbepaidback. Thiscreativeinsightofoneofthepupilsshouldhavebeenakeymoment inthislesson. Therestoftheclasscouldhavebeeninvitedtobringtheircreativeimaginationtobear onthisview. Itwouldhavebeeninterestingtoseehowsolutionsofferedbyotherpupilswouldhave comparedwiththelife-preservingqualityofthispupil’svision. Thisvisionisclosetothebiblicalidea ofGod’swillwhichwantstosustainandreplenishlifeandnotdestroyit. Theanalysisofthelesson showedhoweverthattheteacherwasatalossanddidnotknowhowtodealwiththeinteresting cue given by that pupil. Instead he was more intent on making sure that the lesson plan he had preparedwascarriedthrough. Inthetrainingofteachersthereisaneedtotrainthemindeveloping asensitivityforthoseteachingandlearningsituationsintheclass-roomwhichenkindleandfoster students’creativeandresponsibleagencyandcriticalvision,whicharefavourabletothepromotionof thestudents’culturalwealth. Beingversatileinthegrammarofpossibilityshouldbeamajorassetina teacher’sprofessionalrepertoiresothathecancreate,recogniseandfostersituationsintheclass-room wherestudents’creativeimaginationcanbeencouragedandcultivated. Teachersshouldrealisethata majorcharacteristicofsustainablejusticeistheempoweringoftheyoungingivingexpressiontowhat theybelievetobepossibleeventhoughthepossibilitiesenvisagedmightnotbecurrentpracticeinthe worldtheylivein. Givingvoicetowhatispossibledoesnotchangesocietyimmediately. Itwillnot eradicatethecontradictionswhichenvelopsociety. Butitcanenvisagethehopethatachangemight cometopass. Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 7of10 5.1. LearningtoVoiceOne’sFeelingsaboutJustice(‘Linguistic’Capital) Aswellasusingsuchnarrativesfromthegospelsitisalsoadvisabletolooktothepsalmsandto theprophetsinthesearchformaterialswhicharesuitableforfosteringamatureattitudetowardsthe issuesofjusticewhichplaguecontemporarysocieties. Sincethepsalmsgivevoicetomanyexistential themes,suchasjoyandpraise,thanksgiving,sorrow,despair,etc.,theycanbeawonderfulplatform forhelpingpupilsfindalanguagewithwhichtheycanexperimentinexpressingwhattheyfeelwhen confrontedwithsimilarsituations. Thelanguageofthepsalmsisverydirectandexplicit. Itcomes from the heart and because of that it is very appropriate to use it not only in liturgical but also in educational settings. Underlying the feelings expressed in the psalms are fundamental existential experienceswhichtranscendtimeandmoreoftenthannottheyexpressfeelingswhicharetobefound inallage-groups. Thesefeelingsincludethatofloneliness,ofdejectionandangerbecauseofglaring injustice,ofrevenge,thefeelingthatGodalonecanrestorejustice,feelingsofwantingtoblameGod fornotinterveningandfinallyfeelingsofgratitudeandpraiseofGod’sjustice. Despiteallsetbacksa feelingofconfidenceinGodpermeatesthroughout. Withregardtothethemeofjusticethereareample complaintsaboutunfairjudgementsandtheyearningforprotectionandliberationfromhardshipas aresultoftheunfairdistributionofgoodstobefoundinthepsalms(e.g.,Psalm82,2: complaints aboutpartialityinjudgementandPsalm72,4: callforliberationfromhardship). Alongingforajust andpeacefulworldisakeyfeaturetobefoundinthisbiblicalsongbook(Psalm72,7;Psalm85,10). Hereonecanseethattheindividuallongingforjusticeinthisworldgoesbeyondtheparticularsphere ofone’sownpersonalwell-being. Itenvisionsajustworldforall. Ithasthecommongoodinmind. Therehavebeenvariouswelldocumentedattemptsatmakingchildrenfamiliarwiththelanguage ofthebible. Thosewhichareofmostinteresttousherearethosewhichusethepsalmsespeciallyto helpyoungpeopleespeciallytoexpresstheirexistentialfeelingsabouttheirownlivesandaboutthe worldingeneral. Itisnotalwaysacceptedthatyoungpeople,evenchildrenatprimaryschoolage, havedefinitefeelingsandviewsaboutbasichumansituationsbutmoreoftenthannottheydonot havethelanguageathandtobeabletoexpresswhattheyfeelandwhattheythink. Adults,becauseof experienceswhichtheyhavealreadyhadintheirlives,canusuallyhandleexistentialsituationsoffear, ofdistress,oflonelinessinamorecontrolledandrationalmannerthanchildren. Ofcoursethatisnot alwaysthecase. Veryoftenadultsareatalosswhentheyareconfrontedwithfundamentalexistential situations. Thatiswhyitisimportanttointroducechildrentoaformoflanguagewithwhichthey canlearntocopewiththeirexistentialexperiences. Someoftheseexperiencescanbeverydisturbing; somecanbeverymovinginabeautifulway. Tolearntogiveexpressiontowhatonefeelscanbean importantstepontheroadtobecomingaresponsibleandmatureadult. Thebiblehasawealthoftexts whichgiveexpressiontothefullgamutofhumanfeelings. Biblicallanguagewhenproperlyprepared caneasilybeadaptedtoallagegroups. In Germany, Ingo Baldermann [12] and Rainer Oberthür [13] have done pioneering work in producingresourcesbasedonthepsalmsandhavealsodocumentedtheirworkandthechildren’s imaginative adaptations. The texts selected in these resources reflect young people’s interest in imaginativelanguage: theyconcentrateonthosetextswhichareverypoetical,emotionalandwhich arefullofimagery. Imageryisall-importanthere. Imageryhasthefunctionofbeingabletoexpress longingsoftheheartinvisionswhichcannotnecessarilybeputintopracticebutwhicharealegitimate wayofwayofexpressingone’swishestoseeadifferent,morejustworldcomeintoexistence. Psalm23, beginningwith“TheLordismyshepherd”isawonderfulexampleofanimagerywhichportraysthe desiretoleadasafelifeinthepresenceofajustGodwhowillnotlettheinjusticeintheworldovercome. Thedirectnessandimageryofthechosenbiblicaltextsgivethepupilsthechanceofbeingableto identifythemselveswiththefeelingsexpressedinthemwhilstatthesametimenothavingtoaddress theirownprivateexperiencesdirectly. Thisopenbutneverthelessprotectedspaceintheguiseofthe biblical text is an important aspect of this way of dealing with such intimate existential situations withouthavingtonecessarilydiscloseone’sownprivatefeelingsandemotions. Thedirectnessand imageryofthepsalmscanbeusedasaplatforminhelpingchildrenformulatetheirownshorttexts Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 8of10 anddeveloptheirowncreativeimagesaboutwhatkindofaworldtheywouldliketolivein. Itisup totheteachertoprovidetheproperresourceswhichcanstimulatethechildren’simaginativelinguistic andaspirationalcapitalintheirappealforajustworldforeveryone. 5.2. LearningtoProtestintheNameoftheCommonGood(‘Resistant’and‘Familial/Communal’Capital) Whilstthepsalmsareaninvaluableresourceforlearningtovoiceindividualfeelingsofsorrowand fearandalsoforgivingexpressiontoone’shopes,theprophetsaremoresuitableatasecondaryschool agefordevelopinganactivepotentialofpoliticalresistanceinthefaceoftheinjusticewhichabounds inourworldtoday. Theprophetictraditiontobefoundinthebible(forexample,Amos)doesnot shrinkfromnamingthosewhoareresponsiblefortheinjusticetobefoundintheirmidst.Theprophets didnotfearthemightyoftheirtimenordidtheyflinchatgettinginvolvedininternationalpolitics. Thepoliticalrelevanceoftheprophets,especiallyinregardtoissuesofjustice,isquiteoutstanding. Religiouseducationhasaresponsibilityinbringingthisprophetictraditiontobearinthefosteringof resistantcapitalinyoungpeople. Onthebasisoftheprophetictraditionreligiouseducationcandoitsshareindevelopinganability amongtheyoungtoraiseone’svoiceinnaminginjusticeanditcanstimulatetheminthesearchof thecommongood. Thenurturingoffamilialcapitalgoeswellbeyondanarrowunderstandingof kinship. Itincludesaconsciousnessofandcommitmenttothewell-beingofcommunity. Forthis reasonitisnecessarytoexpandtheconceptof‘familial’capitalwiththeideaof‘communal’capital. With“communalcapital”itisthewell-beingofthepeersoftheyoungwhichisintended.Youngpeople arequiteawareofwhatisgoodforthemandfortheirimmediatepeers. Thisneedstobeexpanded toincludetheirpeersatlargetoo. Forexamplewhentheygoshoppingtheyknowwhatisgoodfor themselvesandfortheirfriendsbutmoreoftenthannottheydonottakethewell-beingofthosewho produce the goods they consume into account. This dichotomy can be raised in the classroom by drawingontheirownsenseofjusticewithregardtothemselvesandbyexpandingittoincludethe well-beingofthoseinvolvedintheproductionofgoods. Inthepropheticbiblicaltraditionthisgood lifeissomethingwhichgoesbeyondanawarenessofthewell-beingofone’sownkin. Italsoenvisages justrelationsinthelargercommunityandinone’sdealingswithothernations. Aswellasthatitgoes beyondphilanthropy. Itismorethanbeinggenerouswithone’swealthinanefforttoalleviatethe needsofthepoor. Thisisnottobebelittled,butthebiblicalnotionofjusticeforallisembeddedin ‘shalom’,auniversalandall-inclusivepeacewithGodtheLordoflifeasitsguarantor. 5.3. LearningtoDealwithUnjustPracticeinChristianHistory Injusticeisnotjustsomethingwhichtakesplaceinsocietyatlarge. Itisalsopartandparcelof Christianhistory. Thismustalsobeaddressedinreligiouseducation. Witholderpupilsitcouldbe rewardingtohaveacloserlookatthisaspectofChristianitythroughthelensofalessconventional teachingresourcewhichinaverysubtlewayportraysthecontradictionwhichistobefoundbetween theyearningforjusticeinthebiblicaltraditionandthewaythisyearninghasbeenhandeddownin thecourseofChristianhistory. A famous painting by the Italian painter Caravaggio can be a very useful resource for the classroominthisregardbecausedespiteitsseeminglyapparentthemeacloserexaminationofthe paintingrevealsthatCaravaggiowasalsoalludingtoafinancialscandal,anembezzlement,inwhich thehonoureddeceasedpatronwasinvolved. Suchahistoricallyremoteresourcecanbeaninvaluable helpinraisingthequestionofhowmuchdoescontradictionandambivalencewithregardtojustice belongtotheChristiantradition? In the year 1600 Caravaggio was asked to paint a big picture on the theme of the calling of St.MatthewforachapeldedicatedtoadeceasedpatroninRome[14]. ThiswasCaravaggio’sfirst public commission. This painting is often referred to in religious education lessons to initiate a discussiononwhatbeingafollowerofJesusentails. Thepaintinghangsinaside-chapelintheFrench national church S. Luigi dei Francesi in Rome. Innumerous visitors go to the church each day to Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 9of10 admirethismasterpiece. Atfirstsightthesubjectofthepaintingseemstobeverystraightforward. Thecompositionisquiteclear. Totheleftinthepictureamanissittingatatablewithothermenandis apparentlycountingmoney. Tohislefttwooftheyoungmenwhoareatthetablewithhimlookup seeminglyastonishedattwopeople,JesusandPeter,whoareapproachingthetable. JesusisstandingintherighthandhalfofthepicturewithPeterstandinginfrontofhimwithhis backturnedtotheobserver. ArayoflightcomingdiagonallyfromtherightabovetheheadofJesus lightensuptheareaportrayed.Jesus’stretchedouthisrightarmwithhisindexfingerpointingtowards thegroupatthetabledominatesthepicture. ItwasastrokeofgeniusonthepartofCaravaggiotohave beenabletoreducethestoryofthecallingofSt. Matthewtothissimplegesture. HereCaravaggio quotesthefrescoportrayingthecreationofAdamwhichMichelangelohadcreatedahundredyears previouslyontheceilingoftheSistineChapel. Jesus’handquotesthehandofAdam(notthatofthe creator)asareferencetohisbeingthenewAdamwhosummonstoanewlifewithhim. WhatissurprisinginthispaintingistheambiguityintendedbyCaravaggioasaformofprotest atthescandalsheobservedineverydayRomanlife. Whenonelooksmorecarefullyattheperson sittingatthetableoppositethevieweronecanseethatherepeatsthepointinggestureofJesusand pointsto... himself? Ordoeshepointtothemantohisrightwhoseemstobeputtingsomemoney asideforhimself? CaravaggioprobablyknewthatCardinalMatthieuCointrelhadabusedhisoffice atthepapalcourtbylininghisownpockets. WiththeevidentambiguityinJesus’calltofollowhim Caravaggiomightwellhavehadpeoplelikethedeadandburiedpatron,CardinalCointrel,inmind, peoplewhobyenrichingthemselvesabusedtheirpositioninsteadofworkingforthecommongood. Suchambiguousworksareagodsendforreligiouseducationbecauseoftheirabilitytoretainthe attentionofthestudents. Questionscouldarisehereabouttheproperwaytopointtopublicscandals. Isitmoreappropriatetobedirectaboutthemandtonametheminnouncertainterms? Orisitbetter tobemorediscreet? WhowasCaravaggioanywaytothinkhehadtherighttorefertosuchscandals? His own life-style was not without rebuke! There is ample room here for discovering more about Caravaggio,abouthisambitionstoberaisedtothenobility,abouthishavingtofleeRomebecauseof havingkilledamaninafeud,etc. Thereisanotherinjusticesurroundingthesettingofthepainting. Duringhislife-timeCointrel hadacquiredtherighttobeburiedinthischapelandtohaveitdecoratedashedeemedfit. Thatwas usualpracticeforthenobilityandforthebetteroffinRomeduringthisperiod. Beingburiedlikethis servedtolegitimateandmaintainecclesiasticalpowerandthestatusquoinRomansociety. Avisitto thechapelonthepartofthelesswell-endowedmadethemawareoftheirmarginalisedpositionin Rome. Theyhadnohopeofeverybeingburiedinsuchnoblesurroundings. Anotherdetailinthepaintingdeservestobementionedinthecontextofthispaper. Itraisesthe questionoftheattitudeofthebetterwell-offtowardsthosewhoarelessfortunate. Inthecontextofthis paintingbyCaravaggioitisaquestionabouttherelationshipoftherichtothepoorintheseventeenth centurybutitisanissuewhichisstillvirulenttodaywhenthegapbetweentherichandthepooris gettingwiderandwiderastimegoeson. ThedetailinquestionisthatJesusandPeterareportrayedbarefoot. Thisissignificantbecause withitCaravaggiowantedtoalludetoaspecialqualityofbeingadiscipleofJesus. Hewantedto emphasise the qualities of humility, of not possessing anything and of always being on the move (Peteriscarryingastaff). WeknowthatCaravaggiowascloselyassociatedwithwhatisknownasa pauperistwayofthinkingwhichthenexistedinRome[15].Thewealthywhowereattractedtothisway ofthinkingfeltthattheyshoulddosomethingtoalleviatethelotofthose(humble)poorwhodeserved theiralmsbut,andthisisimportant,theydidnotfeelthatthesocialordershouldbechangedinany way. Therewasnoquestionofthewealthyrelinquishinganyoftheirsocialprivilegesorstatustotake sideswiththepoor. IsCaravaggio’spaintingasubtlecritiqueoftheinconsistencyofthepauperist movement’s attitude towards the poor? This question is still virulent today. People throughout theworldcontributealottorelieforganisationstohelpthelessfortunate. Dothesepeoplewanta changeinthesocialordersothatthepovertyinducedthroughinjusticebeonedayeradicatedforever? Educ.Sci.2017,7,10 10of10 Maybetheythinkthatthesocialordercannotbechangedandtheyjustwanttoeasetheirconscience? Maybetheyfeelnothingcanbechanged. Whoknows? Inanycaseitiscertainlyanissuewhichis worthraisingintheclassroomsothatstudentsbecomeawareofthevariousramificationsinvolvedin activitiesdesignedtohelpthedisadvantagedandtoabateinjustice. 6. Conclusions Schoolisacontradictoryspacewhichoftenfailstooffsettheunjustsocialrealitieswhichbeset theeducationaltaskofempoweringyoungpeopletomaketheircontributiontowardsamorejust society. Someofthemechanismswhichareattherootoftheseinequitieshavebeenbroughttomind. Thisarticlehasemphasisedandvalorisedthosecreativecapacitieswhichyoungpeoplehaveattheir dispositionintheirstruggletocometotermswiththecontradictionswhichsurroundthem. Teaching andlearningareunderstoodtobeculturalactivitieswhichpromotetheculturalwealthoftheyoung withaviewtoaugmentingtheirself-agencyinshapingamorejustworldforthemselvesandforthe societytheylivein. ConflictsofInterest:Theauthordeclaresnoconflictofinterest. ReferencesandNotes 1. Pongratz,L.SackgassenderBildung.Pädagogikandersdenken.(BlindAlleysinEducation.ThinkingDifferently aboutPedagogy);FerdinandSchöning:Paderborn,Germany,2010.(InGerman) 2. OECD. Equations and Inequalities: Making Mathematics Accessible to All, PISA; OECD Publishing: Paris, France,2016. 3. Gramsci, A. Hegemony, Intellectuals and the State. In Theory and Popular Culture. A Reader, 3rd ed.; Storey,J.,Ed.;PearsonEducationLimited:Harlow,UK,2006;pp.85–91. 4. Willis,P.Notesoncommonculture: Towardsagroundedaesthetics. Eur. J.Cult. Stud. 1998,1,163–176. [CrossRef] 5. DeCerteau,M.ThePracticeofEverydayLife;UniversityofCaliforniaPress:Berkeley,CA,USA,1988;pp.34–39. 6. Fiske,J.TelevisionCulture,2nded.;Routledge:London,UK;NewYork,NY,USA,2010. 7. Giroux,H.Teachersastransformativeintellectuals.Soc.Educ.1985,49,376–379. 8. Yosso, T.J. Whose culture has capital? A critical race theory discussion of community cultural wealth. RaceEthn.Educ.2005,8,69–91. 9. Theexampleof‘symbolicactivity’asoutlinedbyPaulWillis(seeabove)showsthatyoungpeoplepossessa formofculturalwealthwhichisnotusuallyappreciatedandvaluedbyadults,especiallyinaschoolsetting. Theyarenotnecessarilyoppressedinthesamesenseaspeoplewhocomefrommarginalisedbackgrounds are,buttheirresourcesareusuallyseennottobeonaneducationalparwithadultresources. 10. InmostfederalstatesoftheFederalRepublicofGermanydenominationalreligiouseducationisacompulsory curriculumsubjectinthepubliceducationsystem.Itistaughtbyteacherswhohavebeentrainedatpublic universities.Thereareprovisionsmadeforoptingoutandforchoosingethicsorphilosophyinstead. 11. Nipkow,K.E.God,HumanNatureandEducationforPeace: NewApproachestoMoralandReligiousMaturity; Ashgate:Aldershot,UK,2003. 12. Baldermann,I.WerhörtmeinWeinen? KinderentdeckensichselbstindenPsalmen. (WhoHearsMeCrying? ChildrenDiscoverThemselvesinthePsalms),8thed.;NeukirchenerVerlag:Neukirchen-Vluyn,Germany,1986. 13. Oberthür,R.;Mayer,A.Psalmwortkartei(PsalmCardFile);DieckPublishingHouse:Heinsberg,Germany. 14. Caravaggio,M.M.D.TheCallingofSt. Matthew;S.LuigideiFrancesi: Rome,Italy,1600. Availableonline: http://www.artble.com/imgs/c/7/e/921060/the_calling_of_saint_matthew.jpg(accessedon28July2016). 15. Ebert-Schifferer,S.Caravaggio: TheArtistandHisWork;GettyPublications: LosAngeles,CA,USA,2012; pp.33–35. ©2017bytheauthor; licenseeMDPI,Basel,Switzerland. Thisarticleisanopenaccess articledistributedunderthetermsandconditionsoftheCreativeCommonsAttribution (CC-BY)license(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).