ERIC EJ1135035: Dewey on Seriousness, Playfulness and the Role of the Teacher

2017·0.22 MB·English

by  ERIC

education
sciences
Article
Dewey on Seriousness, Playfulness and the Role of
the Teacher
AdrianSkilbeck
UCLInstituteofEducation,DepartmentofEducation,PracticeandSociety,20BedfordWay,
LondonWC1H0AL,UK;[email protected]
AcademicEditors:PaulStandishandSunInnYun
Received:25October2016;Accepted:3January2017;Published:13January2017
Abstract:ThechapterthatJohnDeweydedicatestoconsiderationofplayandworkinthecurriculum
inDemocracyandEducationechoeshisthoughtsonthesamesubjectinHowWeThink,whichpreceded
DemocracyandEducationbysixyears. DeweyclosesHowWeThinkwithamoreexpansivetreatment
ofthetopicandiskeennotonlytorecastthetraditionaldichotomyofworkandplayasdistinctkinds
ofeducationalactivitybuttochallengethehierarchicalstatusoftheaccompanyingmentalstates
ofseriousnessandplayfulness. Deweyarguesthatacombinationofplayfulnessandseriousness
representstheidealmentalattitudeoftheartist: teachingisanart,thereforetheteacherisanartist
and the ideal mental attitude of the teacher to his or work combines the playful and the serious.
It is the task of the teacher to inculcate such habits of mind in his or her students for whom it is
implicitlytheidealmentalstateforlearning. Itisinthelightofthisthatweshouldunderstandwhat
characterisesplayandworkasfeaturesofeducationalactivity.ConsiderationofwhatDeweymeantis
accompaniedbyanexamplefromcontemporaryeducationalpracticeintendedtoillustrateDewey’s
senseofpurposefulactivityinwhichaplayfulapproachcreatesthekindofembodiedexperience
thatwillhelpstudentstoachievedesirededucationaloutcomes. Thiswillleadtoreflectiononhow
the role of the teacher as an artist might be conceived, resisting both the temptation towards an
instrumentalcharacterisationofplayfulnessderivedfromtheapplicationofdiscoveriesincognitive
sciencetoclassroompracticeandgoal-directednotionsofseriousness. Iwillarguethatalongsidethe
conventionalclassroomskillsoftheteacher,whatisrequiredisanauthenticpresencethatisattuned
tothenatureofwhatisbeingtaught,togetherwithaconcernfortheoutcomestobeachieved. Such
anattunementwouldallowforplayfulnessandhumouraswellasseriousness. Itisanattunement
betweenboththeindividualandothersinmutualityandwithhimorherself. Thesethoughtswillbe
developedviaextendedreflectionupontwoscenesfromAlanBennett’sTheHistoryBoys(2006).These
scenesdrawattentiontotheimportanceofconversationforboththeteacher/studentrelationship
andasamediumforplayfulandseriousexplorationofacademiccontent. Ifweonlythinkofthe
Deweyanattitudeoftheartistinanimpersonalsensethenthekindofseriousnessthatisinternalto
thepersonalexpressionofclaimsaboutart,ethics,morality,politics,evenhistory,remainsunheard,
atleastinaneducationalcontext. ItistothisthatIturnthroughconsiderationofconversationand
mutualityintheworkofStanleyCavellviaMichaelOakeshott’sobservationsaboutseriousnessand
playfulness in conversation and further comments offered by Paul Standish on what it means to
saysomething.
Keywords: seriousness;playfulness;artist;conversation;teaching
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16;doi:10.3390/educsci7010016 www.mdpi.com/journal/education
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 2of14
Takealookatachildplaying,oranartist,musician,orathlete. Aretheyseriousabout
whattheyaredoing? Youbet. Buttheyareplayingtoo. Thehighestactivitiesofhuman
beingsandsomeoftheirgreatestaccomplishments,infact,areplay... Thephilosopher
JohnDeweygotitright: “Tobeplayfulandseriousatthesametimeispossible, andit
definestheidealmentalcondition.”
—JohnMorreall1997[1](p. 11)
1. PlayandWorkintheCurriculum
JohnDewey’scommentthattheidealmentalstateharmonisesseriousnessandplayfulnessis
oftenquotedapprovinglywithlittlequestioningofitsassumptionsorimplications. Thereisadanger
insuchstatementsthattheirauraofwisdom,farfromofferingavaluableinsight,dissuadesusfrom
thinkingwithgreatercareaboutwhatisbeingclaimed. Forwhatorwhomisitanidealmentalstate?
Isitsvaluetobereckonedininstrumentalornon-instrumentalterms? Howwouldsuchthinking
manifestitselfintheactivitiesoftheclassroom? Thiscanbeseenfromtheperspectiveoftheteacher
too: whatroledoestheteacherhaveinfacilitatingthisstate? Whatkindofteachingmethodswill
beemployed? Andfromherewemightbeledtoponderonhowthisbearsonthekindofpersonal
qualitiestheteachermustpossessandhowtherelationshipbetweenteacherandstudentsistobe
imagined. Giventhetopicthatismyconcern,itisclearthatonewaytoproceedinthediscussionof
thesequestionswouldbetoassembleacommentaryonthevariouswaysinwhichDeweywritesabout
playandworkandplayfulnessandseriousness. Indeed,thereisasignificantsecondaryliterature
thatwouldbepertinenttothisforexampleGreene(1989)[2],Jackson(2000)[3],Granger(2006)[4],
(Hansen,2006,2007)[5,6]. Thiswouldbeaninterestingandvaluableproject,butitisnottheprimary
concernhere. Insteadthepurposeofthepresentpaperistoforgenewlinesofenquiry,inparticularin
relationtohowplayfulnessandseriousnessaremanifestedincontemporaryeducation.
Dewey’sdiscussionofthenatureofplayandworkinthecurriculuminDemocracyandEducation
([1916], 2011) [7] reflects his thinking on some of these questions. Dewey dedicates a chapter to
consideration of ‘Play and Work in the Curriculum’ in which he argues against thinking of the
two as distinctive features of human activity with only the latter suited for educational purposes,
highlightingwhatThomasS.Henricks(2015)[8]hasdescribedas“theunfortunateconsequencesof
schools’attemptstoseparatethesetwothemes”[8](p. 156). Thiswasmorethanapurelytheoretical
issueforDewey;atthetimeofwriting,intheearlytwentiethcentury,pressurehadbeenbroughtto
bearonmoreconventionalschoolingfromanumberofdifferentsources,mostnotablytheeducational
reformersintheManualTrainingMovement. Deweywasalsorespondingtocurrentresearchinchild
psychologyandhisownteachingexperienceintheclassroom. Asaresultofthiswiderreconsideration
aboutwhatshouldbetaught,newkindsofactivity,whichDeweyreferstoas“activeoccupations”
(2011)[7](p. 108),hadbeenintroducedintoschoolsandthecurriculum. Deweyitemizedtheseas,
... workwithpaper,cardboard,wood,leather,cloth,yarns,clayandsand,andthemetals,
with and without tools. Processes employed are folding, cutting, pricking, measuring,
modelling,pattern-making,heatingandcooling,andtheoperationcharacteristicofsuch
toolsasthehammer,saw,fileetc.Outdoorexcursions,gardening,cooking,sewing,printing,
book-binding,weaving,painting,drawing,singing,dramatization,storytelling,reading
andwritingasactivepursuitswithsocialaims(notasmereexercisesforacquiringskillfor
futureuse)[7](p. 109).
NoteveryoneagreedthatsuchactivitiesweresuitablyeducationalandDeweyhimselfvoices
concern and spends considerable time and effort rethinking their educational worth. Dewey
acknowledgesthattheinclusionofmorepracticalactivitiesinthecurriculumandschoolenvironment,
particularly those associated with play such as games, drama and construction, had made school
muchmoreenjoyableforchildrenandmademanagingthemfarlessonerousaswellasseemingly
enhancingtheirlearning. However,thedown-sidewasasuspicionthatschoolswerebeingtempted
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 3of14
to use such activities simply to make life easier and provide relief from the strain and tedium of
formalschoolwork. Suchactivitiesthereforeneededamorerigorousjustification. Todosowould
requirereconsiderationnotonlyofhowweunderstandplayasanactiveoccupationbutalsohowwe
understandwork,particularlyintheeducationalcontext. Playandworkweretobeunderstoodnotas
antitheticalbutasonlyappearingsointhelightof“undesirablesocialconditions”[7](p. 112).
Clearlyoneofthedominantfactorsinsuchapictureisthatofeconomicnecessity. ItisDewey’s
thought that our conventional notions of work and play have become distorted by the pressures
of economic necessity in a modern industrial society. Dewey believes that what he terms ‘active
occupations’potentiallypossessmuchgreatereducationalvalue;whilstinlifetheymightbevalued
asenjoyableandpleasurableoutlets,inaneducationalcontexttheyhavethecapacitytoengagethe
wholepupil,bodily,emotionallyandimaginatively,thusaffordingopportunitiesforintellectualand
socialdevelopment. Thereforeabsenceofeconomicpressuresintheeducationalcontextoftheschool
meansactivitieswhichnormallypossessaninstrumentalvalueinwidersocietycanbepursuedfor
theirownsakeandenablesuchgrowthtooccur. Deweysuggeststhatbyincorporatingtheseactivities
intothecurriculumthenaturaloutcomeofacquiringknowledgethroughactivitiesdonefortheirown
sakewillbetoenhancetheexperienceoflearning,withplayactivitiesnolongercarryingthestigma
oflackingpurposeandworkactivitiesnolongercarryingthestigmaofdrudgeryandcoercion. Play
andworkwillco-existasharmoniouscharacteristicsofactivitiesdonefortheirownsakewithinthe
educationalcontext. Finally,andimportantly,“workwhichremainspermeatedwiththeplayattitude
isart—inqualityifnotinconventionaldesignation”[7](p. 114).
2. SeriousnessandPlayfulness
However,inHowWeThink(1910)[9],theemphasisontherelativeimportanceofplayandwork
asphysicalactivitiesandtheirinterconnectednessisinternalisedasDeweyconsiderstherelationship
between playfulness and seriousness as states of mind. It is Dewey’s claim that “Playfulness is a
moreimportantconsiderationthanplay”[9](p.162),inthatplayfulnessis“anattitudeofmind”[9]
(p.162)whereasplayisonly“apassingoutwardmanifestationofthisattitude”[9](p. 162). Wemight
wonderwhyDeweyappearstoprivilegetheattitudeovertheactivity. Theanswerseemstoliein
Dewey’s picture of child development in which the child’s playful attitude towards things in the
worldisunderstoodasanexpressionoftheplasticityoffreedomandwhichDeweygenerallyrefersto
morespecificallytoas”freementalplay”. ThekindofplayfulnessthatDeweyinitiallyimaginesis
thatofpretendplayinearlychildhoodinwhichthingsacquiremeaningthroughbecoming“vehicles
of suggestion” [9] (p. 162), for example when “the child plays horse with a broom and cars with
chairs”[9](p.162).Again,Deweyismindfulofthesuspicionthatsuchactivitiesareoftenviewedasno
morethanchild’splayinwhichthechildlosesthemselvesin“animaginaryworldalongsidetheworld
ofactualthings”[9](p. 162)andfeelscompelledtoprovideaneducationalrationaleforactivities
whose value for the child seems wholly reflected in their serious absorption as well as seeking to
accommodatetheseseeminglyantitheticalstates. Todoso,hearguesworkshouldalsobeunderstood
asanattitudeofmind,anorientationtowardsactivity. Thepsychologicalequivalenttocharacterising
activitiesasworkistocharacterisetheattitudeofworkasseriousness.
Deweydevelopsthisthoughtthroughhisinterpretationofthegeneralviewthattheoriginsof
artaretobefoundinchildren’splay. Thisleadshimtosuggestthat“harmonyofmentalplayfulness
andseriousnessdescribestheartisticideal”[9](p. 220). Theunspokenassumptionthereforeisthat
children’s play is itself a harmonization of seriousness and playfulness. In this Dewey echoes the
thoughtsofotherphilosophersandwriterswhohavesoughttoexpressnotonlysomethingimportant
andvitalaboutchildhoodbutalsoasenseofwhatislostandwhatmustberediscoveredinadulthood
throughtheparadoxicaljuxtapositionoftheplayfulandtheserious. Suchthoughtsareexemplifiedin
thefollowingquotes,
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 4of14
“Childrenatplayarenotplayingabout. Theirgamesshouldbeseenastheirmostserious
mindedactivity”.
—MicheldeMontaigne
“Manismostnearlyhimselfwhenheachievestheseriousnessofachildatplay”.
—Heraclitus
“Man’smaturity: tohaverediscoveredtheseriousnesshepossessedasachildatplay”.
—FriedrichNietzsche
Deweyisnottakingupthesethoughtsdirectly. Hispointisnotsomuchthatthesequalitieshave
becomelostbutaredividedanddisplacedincontemporaryindustrialsociety. Itisfromadistorted
anddividedperspectivethatadultsconstructtheeducationalexperiencesofchildren. Whatseems
conjoinedandnaturalintheyoungchildbecomesdichotomizedandestrangedintheadult. Thus
Deweymustworkwithdichotomy,estrangementandparadoxinordertoresolvethemintheideal
mentalstate. Aneducationthatseekstoreplicatethenaturalresponsivenessofthechildtoitsworld
butwithintheclassroominitsbroadestsense,isthedesiredaim.
Whatpreciselydoeshehopetoachieve? AsHenrickssuggests,“Workisactivitythatfocuses
on products or results. Play focuses on processes” [8] (p. 156). Therefore one thought is that he
is illustrating an ideal blend of process and product within the classroom environment. Given he
understandsschoolsashavingessentiallyfailedtoachievethisDeweyseeksamodelforthekindof
engagementheadvocates. Whatpermitshimtodosoisthatinthegeneralpictureofadultnecessity
that forms the background to classroom activity, one type of individual stands out as not having
succumbedsoutterlytothesenecessities: theartist. Theartistretainsthechildlikecapacitytorespond
openlywithbothseriousnessandplayfulnesstotheworldandisabletoturnresponsivenessinto
theproductsofart. Thepictureisofanidealsynthesisofartisticinspirationandartistictechnique
thatproducesthesuccessfultheworkofart,togetherwithanassumptionthattheworkofartwillbe
complete. Toomuchconcernforortoolittleskillintheexecutionoftechnicalaspectsandthework
willbeunsuccessful. Likewiseifnotenoughinspirationorimaginationhasgoneintotheworkof
art,itwillalsobejudgedafailure,revealinglittleaboutitssubjectmatter. Itsfinalformwillbean
expressionofitsmeansandends. InDeweyantermsitisintheharmonyofmeansandendsthat
wehavetheattitudeoftheartist. Importantlyforthemoregeneralaccountofthinkingwithinthe
classroomthatDeweyisarticulating,thisattitude“maybedisplayedinallactivities,eventhoughnot
conventionallydesignatedarts”[9](p. 220). Thus“History,literature,andgeography,theprinciplesof
science,nay,evengeometryandarithmetic,arefullofmattersthatmustbeimaginativelyrealizedif
theyarerealizedatall”[9](p. 224).
3. TheRoleoftheTeacher
GiventhisistheidealbalanceofmentalforcesthatDeweywantsstudentstoexhibit,whatthenis
theroleoftheteacher? Deweyfirstidentifiesteachingasanartandthencharacterisesthetrueteacher
asanartistwhoseclaimtobeone“ismeasuredbyhisabilitytofostertheattitudeoftheartistinthose
whostudywithhim,whethertheybeyouthorlittlechildren”[9](p. 220). Thismightimmediately
giveuscauseforsuspicionasitappearstosuggesttheteacher’sprimaryconcernisnotwithwhat
islearned—theendproduct—whateveritmaybe,butindevelopingtherightattitudestowardsthe
worki.e.,Deweyisexpressingaconcernforthestyleorskillsoflearningandnotthespecificsubject
contentofwhatislearned. However,ultimatelyDeweyarguesthat“thedifficultyandrewardofthe
teacher”[9](p. 221)is“tonurtureinspiringaimandexecutiveintoharmonywitheachother”[9]
(p. 221). Thusthetaskoftheteacherisnotsimplytodeveloptherightkindoforientationtowards
activitiesbuttoachieveanidealbalancebetweentheinspirationandvisionnecessarytoengageand
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 5of14
animatestudentsandprovidethemwiththeguidanceessentialtoacquiringmasteryoverthemeans
ofexecutingthatwhichtheyhavebeeninspiredtoproducewithinaparticularsubjectoracademic
discipline. Itisbothadifficultyandareward. Itisnoteasybutitisworthpursuing.
Dewey’sproposalappearstoimplythateachsubject,initsownway,isbesttaughtthroughan
idealblendingoftheplayfulandtheserious. TheproblemisnotGradgrindianfactsassuchbutthe
way in which those facts are presented and taught, leaving little room for imaginative play upon
them. Theroleoftheteacheristocreateopportunitiesforthisintheclassroom. Itistheplayfulthat
engages the interest of the student, encourages inquiry, exploration, experimentation, encourages
studentstoquestiontheirassumptionsaboutatopic,unsettlespriorknowledgeandopensupstudents
tothepossibilityofnewknowledge. Itistheseriousthatensureslearningisabsorbedintermsof
clearly identifiable ends. The student may be puzzled, curious, bewildered, amazed, encouraged
tospeculateandsoforthbutthiswillbeinordertomeetthoseends. ThuswhileDeweyseeksto
liberateboththestudentandtheteacherfromthedrudgeryofunsatisfactorilymotivatedtasksso
that the experience of learning will be much the better for the ideally playful orientation towards
variededucationalactivities,thestudent’sexperienceofeducationstillreflectsapurposefulharmony
ofprocessandproduct. Itisimportantthatsuchpurposefulnessdoesnotbecomeprogrammedand
that,asPaulStandishremindsus(2003),Deweyviewseducationasinvolvinga“freeingactivity”[10]
(p.227)inwhichtheteacherisableto“lethismindcometoclosequarterswiththepupil’smindand
thesubjectmatter”(Dewey,1916[7](pp. 108–109)inStandish[10](p. 227)).
Agoodexampleofhowpedagogicalpracticecanbeunderstoodasharmonisingtheseriousand
theplayfulinthispurposefulwayisfoundinOutstandingTeaching: EngagingLearnersbyAndy
GriffithandMarkBurns(GriffithandBurns,2012)[11]. Inthechapter‘Sir,Ireallyenjoyedthatlesson’
GriffithandBurnsdiscusshowoutstandingteachersmakeuseofplayandplayfulnessinorderto
enhance the learning experiences of their students. They give lots of fun examples of techniques
employed,techniquesthathelpstudentsfeelmoresecureand“morelikelytotakethekindsofrisk
thatenableacceleratedlearning”[11](p. 114),makingthem“moreopentospeculating,hypothesising,
creatingandbeingopentosharingtheirlearning”[11](p. 114). Theirclaimisthat,
Playisaseriousbusiness. Encouragingplayandplayfulnesswillhelpstudentsnotonly
getmoreenjoymentfromtheirlearningbutalsomoreprogress. Usingplayfulmethods
inourteachingcangetstudentstobemorealert,moreinterested,moreengagedandinto
moreflow. Playcanalsobecomeamoredesirablehabitforbothteachersandstudents,
enablingthemtovalueplayfulwaysofexploringlearningandliving[11](p. 120).
Inthecourseofofferingusefuladvicetotheteacheraboutsuchthingsastargeteduseofgames,
acquiringasenseofhumourandrelaxedpersona,modellingplayfulnessanddevelopingclowning
andstand-upskills,theypresentanexampleofhowplayisusedbyateachertoenablemoreserious
work,inthiscasethepracticalstudyofaShakespearetext,
AnneRileyknowsthatwhenshewantsherGCSEEnglishstudentstoactoutascenefrom
RomeoandJulietshehastowarmthemupfirst. Shegetsstudentstosimplywalkpasteach
other. Thensheasksthemtowalkpasteachotherandmakeeyecontact. Andthenshe
asksstudentstowalkpasteachotherwithaswagger. Shegraduallybuildsengagement
beforeanydialoguefromthescriptisspoken[11](p. 98).
Asdescribedtheseriouseducationalworkistheactingoutofthescene. Itseducationalaimmight
be,forexample,toexaminethenatureofShakespeare’scharacterisationorhowthemesarerepresented
throughstaging,howvocaltechniquesanduseofphysicalitycanhelptoestablishcharacter,context,
tensionetc. Committedandengagedinvolvementwillthenenablethestudentstowritewithinsight
abouttheplay,drawingontheirownexperience.Thisistheengagementthatisreferredto.Theteacher
breaksdownthecomponentparts,particularlythosethataredifficulttosustainorrequirethestudents
tobewarmedup. Thusitisastepbystepintroductiontowhatisrequiredinthescenetomakeit
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 6of14
convincing—themakingandbreakingofeyecontact,theuseofappropriatebodylanguage,movement
andgesture,hopefullyleadingtoconvincingandappropriateexpressionofdialogue.
Of course it is not enough to simply do the exercises. You can walk, make eye contact,
swagger,badly. Thestudentsmaybeembarrassedandnottakeitseriously,undervaluingthework.
Their work itself may be ineffectual. The teacher knows this. The exercises target what is most
difficult—holdingeyecontactincloseproximity,keepingastraightface,enjoyingtheswagger,playing
withitthreateningly. Theyarethereforesomethingmorethanjustawarm-up. Ingraduallybuilding
engagementtheexerciseswillcometoconstitutepartofthesceneandareboundupbothwiththe
representationofthetextthroughitsphysicalandvocalembodimentandwithtakingitseriously.
ThismightappeartopresentagoodexampleofwhatDeweywasseekingtojustify.Itdrawsonan
activitylikedrama,itharmonisesthepreparatoryprocessandtheendproduct,reflectingaharmony
ofseriousnessandplayfulnessinthestudentsthemselvesandbetweenteacherandstudents. Asa
resultoftheirengagementthestudentswillbeabletosuccessfullyrespondtotheformaleducational
demands that will be made on them, for example in being able to answer an exam question in a
literaturepaperwithinsightandunderstanding. However,asIhavedescribedit,afurtheraspecthas
beenintroducedintheideathattheworkitselfrequiredacertainresponsivenessthatisinternalto
whatitmeanstoworkwellwithinthesubject. Itissomethingmoreakintotheseriousnessofthechild
atplay,absorbedandcompletelyathomeintheplayfulnessofthework,enjoyingitinthemoment
foritsownsakeandnotjustforwhatwillbeproducedasaresultofit. Akin,butnotidenticalwith;
rather,theworkitselfmayconditionhowweunderstandwhatisappropriatelyseriousandplayful
inourapproachestoitandtoonlyseeitininstrumentaltermswillbetodistortourunderstanding
ofwhatissignificantintheworkandwhatitdemandsofus. Thisthereforeraisesaquestionabout
whetherDewey’sharmonisingofseriousnessandplayfulnessrisksanunintendedinstrumentality
thatobscuresimportantaspectsoftherelationshipofteacherandstudenttosubjectcontentthatare
notsoeasilyaccommodatedbysuchdominantapproaches.
4. TheProblemofSeriousness
AsexemplifiedinthediscussionofGriffithandBurns,itseemsnaturaltofocusonthenatureof
playandtheplayful,howtheyareunderstoodandrepresented,howtheyaretobeemployed,what
theireducationalvalueisandhowtheyaretoappropriatelyilluminateandenhancethestudent’s
experienceofeducationandlearning. Afterall,AsFiachraLonghaspointedout(2013)[12](p. 19),
theancientGreekslinkedthewordpaidia,meaningplay,tothewordpaideia,meaningeducationand
formation, with both words referring back to the Greek word for child, pais. We have long since
progressedbeyondthenarrowAristotelian,nottosaypuritanical,viewofplayasmerelyrecreational,
inthelightoftheworkofDewey,LevVygotsky,JeanPiaget,D.W.Winnicottandothers. Rather,as
Long argues, “it is perhaps better to think of play as enhancing the creativity of any activity and
lesseningitsdrudgeryandforthisreason‘child’splay’isafeatureofallhumanbehaviour”[12](p.19)
As exemplified by imagination, creativity and humour, the speculative and light-hearted spirit of
playfulnessisafamiliarfeatureofeducationaldiscourseandwouldseemtoreflecttheattitudeof
theDeweyanartist. However,itiscurrentlymorelikelytobediscussedandjustifiedinthelightof
cognitivepsychologyandneuroscience,havingbeenliberatedfromitsprogressiveDeweyanroots
andlatter-daysuspicionsofitsdetrimentaleffectonseriousacademiclearningandtheacquisitionof
knowledge. Notwithstandingthisrehabilitationandembracingofplayandplayfulnessinproviding
themeanstowardsmorerespectedcontemporaryeducationalends,IwanttointroducewhatIwill
call the problem of seriousness and how it might shed some light on what Dewey intends when
talkingabouttheteacherasanartist. IndoingsoIhopetounsettletheconventionalsenseinwhichhe
understandstherelationshipofprocesstoproduct,meanstoendsasanessentiallypurposefulone.
TodosoweneedtolookbeyondthewaysinwhichDeweyappearstoderivehisideaofseriousness
fromthecharacterisationofwork.
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 7of14
WhatappearstobemissingfromDewey’saccountofhowweorientateourselvestoeducational
activitiesisasenseofthedifferentwayswemightbeclaimedbywhatwearedoing,morespecifically
thatourorientationtoactivitymaynotbesotidilypackaged. Forexampleitmattersthatonoccasions
our orientation, understood as that which drives us to express ourselves, is something more than
interestorcuriosityandisattunedtotheethicalsignificanceofwhatweareteachingandstudying.
This may make non-instrumental or non-purposeful claims on both teacher and student alike i.e.,
thatwhatweareexpressingandhowweexpressourselvesmatterstous, ispersonallyimportant
and is not solely in response to the demands of conventional academic ends. This may permit a
harmonyofplayfulnessandseriousnessbutitmayalsodrawoutconsiderabletensionsbetweenthe
attributesofmindidealisedintheattitudeoftheartistasaneducationalidealandaseriousnessthatis
appropriatetothematerialandwhichmayfindexpressioninnon-seriousforms. Thisneednotjustbe
anethicalresponse. Itcouldequallybereligious,aesthetic,political,butitistheethicalthatresonates
inwhatfollows.
5. SeriousnessandPlayfulnessinTheHistoryBoys
ThisisillustratedintwoscenesfromAlanBennett’sTheHistoryBoys(Bennett/Hytner,2006)[13].
The History Boys, which began life as a stage play at the National Theatre in London before being
madeintoafilm,followsthepreparationofagroupofteenageboysfortheirentranceexaminations
forOxfordandCambridge. Thefilmitselfdefieseasycategorisation. Itisbothseriousandfunny.
Stylistically, itappearsat firstglancetobe naturalistic butitisalso thecasethatwheretheschool
context,notablybutnotexclusivelytheclassroom,becomesaplaceforakindofexcess,naturalism
giveswaytoastyleofperformancethatismoreexaggeratedandlargerthanlifethanwouldbethe
caseinastandardclassroom. Thiscanbeseennotonlyinthemusicalperformancesanddramatic
improvisationsbutalsointherecitingofpoetryandtheusestowhichitisput. Thismoreovertly
theatricalstyleservesnotonlytoheightenthedramaticimpactofthefilmbutalsodirectsustooneof
Bennett’sconcerns,namelythevaluethatourexperiencesineducationhaveforourlivesingeneral.
Oneofthekeythemes,theclashofperspectivesonthepurposeandaimsofeducation,isplayedout
intherelationshipstheboysenjoywithontheonehand,Hector,theirunconventionalEnglishteacher
fromwhomtheyget“culture”,andIrwin,thesmartsupplyteacherbroughtinbytheheadteacherto
givetheboys“polish”and“edge”. Letusnowturntothetwoscenes.
5.1. Scene1
Thescenetakesplaceanhourintothefilm. HectorhasbeenforcedtoshareaclasswithIrwin.
Wedonotseealessonassuch, butadiscussionaboutthecontentofalesson. Theboysaresilent,
uncertainastowhatisexpectedofthem, veryawarethatthetwoteachersdemandverydifferent
orientationstowardstheactivitiesthattakeplaceintheirclassrooms. Irwinproposestheydiscuss
theHolocaust. Whatemergesaretwovigorouslyarguedperspectivesonthenatureofseriousness
withinaneducationalcontext. OntheonehandistheviewthattheHolocaustisasubjectlikeany
otherandthereforepermitsadetached,speculative,exploratoryplayinitstreatment. Ontheotheris
thethoughtthatitisnotaneventlikeanyother,thereforehowonediscussesitandwhatcanbesaid
aboutitdemandsaseriousnessthatisinternaltoacknowledgmentofthehorroritrepresentswhichis
characterisedbythoughtfulnessandnotcleverness.
Thescenebeginsawkwardly. Theboysareparalyzedbyuncertaintyaboutwhatisexpectedof
themandareunabletomakeadecisionaboutwhattheyshoulddiscuss,thenormalprocedurein
theirGeneralStudieslessons. AsTibbs(playedbyJamesCorden)says,“Dependsifyouwantusto
bethoughtful,orsmart”. IrwinsuggestsdiscussingtheHolocaust. ThisprovokesHectortoquestion
howitispossibletoteachsuchasubject. Crowther’sresponsetothis,thatitcanbetreatedasasubject
andthereforestudiedlikeanyother,promptsScrippstopointoutthatitisnotasubjectlikeanyother.
HectorisclearlyquitehorrifiedbytheeducationalrenderingoftheexperienceoftheHolocaustin
whichschoolsgoontripstoconcentrationcampsandchildreneatcrispsanddrinkcoke,towhich
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 8of14
Crowtherrespondsthatinthisrespectsuchplacesarenodifferentfromothereducationalattractions
thatcaterforschoolvisits. WhattroublesHectoristhatnothingaboutournormaleverydaylifeand
behaviourseemsappropriateatthesitesofsuchmonumentalsufferingandevil. Thisleadsbrieflyto
speculationaboutwhatmightbeappropriate. Hector’sembracingoftheideathatsilencemaybethe
onlyappropriateacknowledgmentisscornedbyDakinwhoisatthispointinfatuatedwithIrwin’s
clevernessanddisillusionedbyHector’sshambolicpedagogy. Hector’sforcefulreactiontoDakinis
todenigratehiscommentasflip,glibjournalism. However,Hector’sownideaforacknowledging
theHolocaust,asanunprecedentedhorrorlikenoother,iscriticizedinturnforbeingconventional
andbanal.
Thediscussionthenturnsbrieflytotheethicalnatureofthelanguageofcriticism. Tospeakof
placingeventsinproportionorcontextinordertoprovideexplanationsisseenbyPosnerastantamount
toexplainingawaytheeventsoftheHolocaust,reducingtheirsignificancetooneofcauseandeffect,
thustrivializingthesignificanceofwhattookplace. Whatheperceivesasafailureofseriousnessis
legitimizedbyeducationalpracticesandvalues;Irwinisimpressedbytheseargumentsasiftheyare
movesinamoredisinterestedconceptionofconversationandmorethanoncemurmurs“Goodpoint”
inresponse. BothPosnerandScrippsobjecttothis. PosnertellsIrwinheisnotmakinga‘goodpoint’
butmeanswhathesayswhilstScrippsinsiststhatwhatmattersinthediscussionisthatwhatissaidis
true. Irwin’sreactionistotellScrippstodistancehimselffromthematerial,insistingthatthejobofthe
historianistoprovideaperspectiveoneventsandtodosowithnoguaranteethatthiswillnotchange
asnewinterpretationsareputforward. Nothinginthisrespectcanbedefinitive,everythingisopen
torevision,includingthemeaningoftheHolocaust. Ineducationalterms,providingandworking
withperspectivesonhistoricaleventsrequiresanappropriatelyacademiccriticaldistancingofoneself
fromthematerialthatoneisstudyingandaboutwhichoneisspeakingregardlessofthenatureof
thoseeventsandwhatconstitutes‘primaryevidence’. Wemustdosoinordertoensureourviews
donotbecomerigidanddogmaticbutareopentoreflection,re-evaluationandfreshperspectives.
This implies that Irwin does not take their first person protestations seriously, regarding them as
theexpressionofentrenchedopinion,nomatterhowsincerelyexpressed. Academicstudyistobe
conducted in the third person through argument and the provision of perspectives. From Irwin’s
perspectiveHector’spointofviewisold-fashionedandclichéd. Farbettertolookforfreshinsightthat
willshednewlightonsourcematerialandwhichtreatstheHolocaustasjustonetopicamongstmany
aboutwhichtheymayormaynotbequestioned. ThesceneendswithDakinsidlinguptoIrwinand
sycophanticallytellinghimhowhe’swontheargument,puttingHectorinhisplace,asifthatiswhat
wasatstakeintheconversation.
5.2. Scene2
BennettandHytnerbalancetheoutcomeofthediscussionontheHolocaustwithasceneinwhich
weareshownhowtheseriousnessappropriatetosubjectcontentcanbeexpressedinmorepersonal
terms. Theboyshavebeenonatriptoaruinedmonastery. OntheirreturnHectorissummonedto
theHeadteacher’soffice. Histendencytoinappropriatelytouchtheboyswhengivingthemalift
homeonhismotorbikehasbeenspottedandreported. Theheadmasterisfuriousbutdoesnotwantto
riskdamagingtheschool’sreputationbysackingHector. InsteadHector’sretirementwillbebrought
forwardandtheincidenthushedup. Hectorexitsandgoesintotheclassroomtoteachanafter-school
lesson. PosnerhasstayedbehindandsotheyhaveaonetoonelessononapoembyThomasHardy,
“DrummerHodge”. Havinglearnedthepoem, aboutayoungsoldierwhodiesandisburiedina
foreigncountry,Posnerrecitesitoffbyheartandtheydiscussit. Hectormakestheconnectionbetween
himselfandHardywhenPosneraskshimhowoldhewaswhenhewrotethepoemtowhichHector
replies,“about60,myageIsuppose. Asaddishlife,thoughnotunappreciated”. Thesignificanceof
compoundadjectivesforHector,mentionedearlierinthefilmbyDorothyLintott,becomesapparent.
HavingdescribedHodgeas“uncoffined”toindicatetheroughandreadynatureofhisdeathand
burial,HectorgivesfurtherexamplesofHardy’suseofthegrammaticalform—“Unkissed.Unrejoicing.
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 9of14
Unconfessed. Unembraced”. Itisevidentheistalkingabouthimselfandindescribingthetechnique
asgivingthepoemasenseof“notsharing”andbeing“outofit”heexpressessomethingofhisown
experiencetowhichPosnercanrelatethroughhisreadingofthepoem—“Ifeltthatabit”. Hector
thensays“thebestmomentsinreadingarewhenyoucomeacrosssomething—athought,afeeling,
awayoflookingatthingsthatyou’dthoughtspecialandparticulartoyou. Andhereitissetdown
by someone else, a person you’ve never met, maybe even someone long dead”. He describes the
experience as being “as if a hand has come out and taken yours”. As Hector reaches out his own
hand,Posnermotionsasiftoreachoutandtouchit,beforehesitating. Itisamomentofempathyand
sharedunderstanding. AsPosnerrecitesthelastverseonceagain,itsusefulnessliesbeyondIrwin’s
exhortationstoturnsuchknowledgeintogobbetstobeinsertedintoessaysbutexistsasanexpression
ofasharedunderstandingofwhatitfeelsliketobeanoutsider,notquite“intheswim”.
Can Dewey help us understand what distinguishes Hector and Irwin in exemplifying how
seriousnessandplayfulnessarepresentwithintheclassroom?Bothareunorthodoxandthefilmmakes
bothvisionsofeducationcompelling.WhilstHector’sapproachwillofferthegreaterintegrity,theboys
alsoneedIrwin’sapproachtogivethemachanceofsuccessfullypassingtheirentranceexaminations.
However, if the two visions are complimentary there is also a tension between them that requires
acknowledging. Itistoosimplistictothinkofthisasatensionbetweentheintentional/purposiveand
theaimless,despiteDakin’sreferencetoHectorasa“shambles”. HansJoas(1996)[14]inTheCreativity
ofActionspeaksofDeweyand“thenon-teleologicalinterpretationoftheintentionalityofaction”,that
is,havingpurposesbutnotspecificallyfixedones.Hector’steachingdoesnotlackintentionorpurpose,
ratheritlacksthefixedpurposesandgoal-directedthrustofIrwin’s. Thereissomethingattractiveand
dynamicaboutthescenesinthefilmdepictingIrwin’slessonswiththeboys. Hismethodsencourage
thefreeplayofthinkingonsubjectmatter,theboysareengagedandheencouragesthemtomake
gooduseoftheknowledgeofbothhighandlowculturethatHectorhasprovidedforthemtomake
interestingconnections. Inseekingtotouchtheirsoulsandbetouchedinreturn,Hector’steaching
risksexposureandrejection;Irwin’sriskisthatofprofessionalfailure.
WherethendoesthisleaveuswithregardtoDewey’sharmonisingoftheseriousandtheplayful
inhisdescriptionofthemindandlearning? DoesDewey’slineofthoughttakeasimilarcoursetothe
kindofviewthatcharacterisescontemporarythinkingaboutpedagogy,subjectknowledgeandsubject
contentwhichisthatwhatmattersisstudentsacquiringdesignatedknowledgebyanymeanspossible?
Irwin inthis respect exemplifiesmainstreamattitudes to teaching and learning, one thatDewey’s
perspectivewouldseeminglycountenance. ItisinterestinghowwearetoldinthefilmthatIrwin
ultimatelybecomeswell-knownasatelevisionhistorianandyet,asScrippsobserves,hismethods
essentiallyinvolvedtheapplicationofaformulaforturningconventionalideasontheirheadand
arguingthecontraryinaconvincingmanneri.e.,thereissomethingnonseriousaboutIrwin’steaching
despiteappearancestothecontrary.
Igaveanexampleearlierthatdescribedhowteachersshouldmodelplayfulness.Suchexhortations
operatewithatacitassumptionthatplayfulnessandseriousnessarenotonlydistinguishablebutthat
whatweunderstandasseriousnessandtaketobeseriousdoesnotrequirethesamesortofattention.
Afterall,whoneedsadviceonhowtobeserious? Itisalltooeasytobeserious;theproblemisnota
lackofseriousnessbutitstotalizingpresenceinthedemandthatallexperiencesinschoolmustbe
educationalandaccountableassuch. Itisthiswhichmeanswerequirereminderstorelaxandbe
playful. Itisofcourseimportantthattheseplayfulexperiencesarethemselveseducational. Thiswas
Dewey’sconcernalso. Inthisrespectitmightbeusefultothinkofafurthercontrastintheteachingof
HectorandIrwin,betweenwhatispersonalandimpersonal. AsindicatedIrwin’smethodinvolves
a distancing of oneself from subject matter in order to acquire a critical perspective on it. Hector
reflectsaconcernforwhatispersonalineducation. Itisanapproachtosubjectcontentratherthana
distancingfromit. Itisaplaceforexplorationofpersonalthoughtandfeelingindiscussion. Itis
IrwinwhotheatricalizeshisteachingwhilstHectorseeksmoreauthenticexperiencesintheclassroom.
Inthisrespectthereareanumberofthingsaboutthescenethatareworthmentioning. Ittakesplace
Educ.Sci.2017,7,16 10of14
inasocialsetting. Itisstagedinademocraticcirclewhichcouldalsobeunderstoodasaplacefor
performing. Theteachersprovideanopportunityforthestudentstospeak. Whatthesceneprovidesis
acontrastbetweenspeakingpersonallyandspeakingimpersonally. Thelatterisarecognizablefeature
ofeducation,theformerlessso. Idonotmeanthatstudentsdonothavepassionatediscussionsabout
issuesbutthepersonalvoice—“itisn’t‘good’,sir. Imeanit”—isnotthevoicedesiredbytheends
of education whereas the impersonal voice—“Good point”—is. However, it seems to me that the
impersonalvoiceisnotthevoicethatexpressestheattitudeoftheartist. Theartist’svoiceisapersonal
voicemarriedtotheskilleduseoftechnique. Thisattunementbetweenwhattheartistseekstoexpress
andhowthisisachievediswhatenablesthepersonalvoicetoemergeandprovidesthevaluefound
within the artistic activity. For the teacher this is the same. It is this that makes Dewey’s claim to
artistryinteachingcredible,notthemoreimpersonalmanagementrequiredtoharmoniseplayfulness
andseriousness.
IdonotthinkthatDeweyconceivesofthedifferentsubjectsinthespiritofeachbeingjustlike
anyotherandthereforesuitedtoanimpersonalimpositionofastyleofpedagogy,thekindofthing
thatishappeningacrossacademychainsinEngland,forexample,whereschoolswithinachaincome
togethertoensuresubjectsaretaughtinmoreorlessthesamewayacrossthemembersofthechain.
Inseekingtointroducetheimaginativeandtheplayfulthereisanawarenessthattheexperienceof
educationcanbesomuchmorethan,forexample,teachingtothetest. Thedangerrepresentedhere,
however,isnotoneofdrudgerybutofthe“flip”orthe“glib”,notonlyinwhatmarksthedifference
betweentheprovisionofoccasionsformakingagoodpointandtheprovisionofopportunitiesto
meanitbutfromtheteacher’sperspectivehavingabearingupontheplanningoflessonsandthe
employmentofstrategiesandtechniques.
ThekindofattunementIamadvocatingisbothanattunementtothedeepersignificanceand
possibilityofwhatitmeanstobeateacherasmanifestedinwhatoneseekstodevelopinone’sstudents
butalsotooneselfandone’sownvoice. BothareimportantandweseethatinTheHistoryBoys,not
onlyintheplayingoutofthetwoperspectivesbutalsointhesensethatitforcesustoconsiderour
ownvoiceasteachers. IfweonlythinkoftheDeweyanattitudeoftheartistintheimpersonalsense
then the kind of seriousness that is internal to the personal expression of claims about art, ethics,
moralityandpoliticsremainsunheard,atleastinaneducationalcontext.
Suchanattunementallowsforplayfulnessandhumouraswellasseriousness. Itisanattunement
between the individual and others in mutuality and with him or herself. This suggests there is
somethingimportantaboutthenatureofconversationthattakesplacebetweenteacherandstudents.
ItistothisthatIwanttoturnthroughconsiderationofconversationandmutualityintheworkof
StanleyCavellviaMichaelOakeshott’sobservationsaboutseriousnessandplayfulnessinconversation
andfurthercommentsofferedbyPaulStandish.
6. Conversation
What remains unclear is how the teacher is to achieve the harmonization of seriousness and
playfulnessandwhatitsvalueis.Whatisitabouttheartistthatmakesitworthpursuing?Furthermore,
noneofthisexplainswhytheartististhemodel. Whynotthescientist? Whynotthemathematician?
Whynotthehistorian,anIrwin,ifacademicmodelsaretoserveasmodelsofthinkingintheclassroom?
Oreventhephilosopher,playingwithideas,testingtheorieswiththoughtexperiments,reasoning
rigorously? Whynotanyonecommittedtounsettlingpreconceivedideas,encouragingspeculative
thinking,provokingstudentstonewwaysofunderstanding?Perhapswecangetasenseofitsworthin
ChrisHiggins’sdiscussionofawell-knownquotefromMichaelOakeshott. HigginsturnstoOakeshott
in the light of comments by Dewey on what it means to see teaching as a vocation. Oakeshott is
explaininghisimaginingofhumanactivitythroughthemetaphorofconversation,
Theimageofhumanactivityandintercourseasaconversationwill,perhaps,appearboth
frivolousandundulyskeptical. Thisunderstandingofactivityascomposed,inthelast
resort,ofinconsequentadventures,oftenputbyforanotherdaybutneverconcluded,and