ERIC EJ1127711: Active Learning Strategies for Complementing the Lecture Teaching Methods in Large Classes in Higher Education

2015·0.32 MB·English

by  ERIC

Mangram, Haddix, Ochanji & Masingila 57
Active Learning Strategies for Complementing
the Lecture Teaching Methods in Large Classes
in Higher Education
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students attending higher education institutions in the latter part of the 20th century and into the 21st century. We contend that
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these techniques to engage their future students in large classroom contexts.
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lecturers and students.
(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:54)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:16)(cid:54)(cid:68)(cid:75)(cid:68)- reported that instructors’ teaching methods have
ran Africa is an ongoing reality that poses particu- not evolved to effectively engage the overcrowded
lar challenges and opportunities for these African classroom (UNESCO, 1997); instructors lecture
nations (Mohamedbhai, 2008). Like Scott (1995), and assess their students on rote memorization
(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:73)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:3) (Biggs, 1999). Faced with large class sizes that
increase of students attending higher education in- range between 400-1,000 students (Mulryan-Kyne,
stitutions in the latter part of the 20th century and 2010), instructors are not only becoming discour-
into the 21st century. According to Mohamedbhai aged due to lack of resources and the inordinate
(2008), funding, quality of education, relevance amount of time it takes to grade student assign-
of education, teaching, learning, and research, in- ments, but also because their ability to conduct re-
frastructure, and quality of student life are all is- search is short-circuited.
sues with which higher education institutions are (cid:36)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:3) (cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3) (cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3) (cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3) (cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)
grappling. For example, regarding teaching, learn- presents many challenges, it also presents opportu-
ing and research, the United Nations Organization (cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:50)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:69)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)-
for Education, Science and Culture (UNESCO) tion in Sub-Saharan Africa is that governments are
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research | Volume 4 (2015) 58
investing in their youth and mortality rates are low- in their classes regardless of the number of students
er with improved economic and health prospects. in a class. In the following sections, we discuss the
Governments are mandating compulsory free pri- rationale and context of this work, as well as de-
mary and secondary education, thus more students (cid:191)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:88)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)
are attending and completing secondary education. educators and our reasoning behind choosing each
For instance, 31 million African students enrolled strategy.
in secondary education from 1999-2004, an in-
crease of 43% (UNESCO, 2007). As Bloom (2005) RATIONALE
suggested, governments understand the direct link In order for students to develop deeper, clearer
between higher education and healthy lifestyles, meaning and understanding of what they are taught,
economic development, and personal empower- they need to be actively involved in the learning
ment. Hence, in some instances, subsidized by the process. Active participation of the student in the
government, many students seek higher education learning process is of paramount importance in the
to build on their human capital, which will in turn formulation of meaningful comprehension and the
(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:92)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:56)(cid:49)(cid:40)(cid:54)(cid:38)(cid:50)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3) understanding of the content being learned. Active
large shifts of student enrollment to higher educa- learning is a key element of constructivist learning
tion are positive, demonstrating democratization of theory. The theory suggests that humans construct
access in which more than the society’s elite popu- knowledge and meaning from their experiences
lations are being educated. What, then, are the im- (Chrenka, 2001). In a constructivist classroom, the
plications for educators in higher education institu- students are the focus and the teacher is a facilita-
tions, particularly teacher educators, who may have tor who asks good questions that guide students to
400 to 1,000 students in their lecture halls? Does (cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:37)(cid:82)(cid:81)-
(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:34)(cid:3)(cid:3) well and Eison (1991) suggested, “active learning
(cid:55)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:71)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:68)- (cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:89)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:82)-
tion institutions in Sub-Saharan African nations ing things and thinking about what they are doing”
(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:82)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:82)(cid:71)- (p. 2). In other words, students are engaged and at
els, enacting evaluation and accreditation systems, the center of the learning process.
rewriting their curricula, enhancing their techno- (cid:36)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:3)
(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:92)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3) pedagogical learning activities. Many techniques
(cid:11)(cid:48)(cid:82)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:69)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:27)(cid:12)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:71)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)- can be used to get the students involved, includ-
tion and quality assurance, the central question is: ing “experiential learning, cooperative learning,
Do more students in the lecture hall mean a lower problem-solving exercises, writing tasks, speaking
quality learning experience or do more students in activities, class discussion, case-study methods,
the lecture hall simply mean a different learning (cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:80)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:16)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:15)(cid:3)
(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:54)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:12)(cid:34)(cid:3)(cid:54)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:86)(cid:3) independent study, library assignments, comput-
of education where teacher preparatory methods er-aided instruction, and homework” (Houston,
courses are being taught, can the quality of the edu- 1995, p. 2). The method of active learning a teacher
cational experience be enhanced through the very chooses will depend upon the situation (i.e., what
pedagogical methods employed by the instructor? is being taught to what level of student). For many
We contend that even in large lecture hall situa- teachers, these strategies are a common menu on
tions, active teaching strategies can be employed to their professional development workshops and are
check for understanding, to engage more students anything but new. However, implementing such
in grappling with the content in deeper and more strategies in class sizes of about 400 students can
complex ways, and to model for prospective teach- pose challenges that have not been previously ad-
ers, techniques to engage their future students in dressed in many professional development work-
large classroom contexts. In this expository paper, shops.
we outline the professional development training (cid:50)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)
we conducted with Kenyatta University teacher education is large class size. Given the large class
educators; we focused on teaching and modeling sizes in many Sub-Saharan universities, lectur-
twelve active learning strategies that they could use ing has remained the most predominant format of
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Mangram, Haddix, Ochanji & Masingila 59
content delivery. This approach to teaching fails to in learning, and to model and teach strategies that
provide the necessary engagement typical of active their students (who are prospective teachers) would
learning. At the same time, many instructors are be able to use in their future secondary school
short of strategies to engage large number students teaching practice. While the 20 workshop partici-
in active learning. Disrupting lecture-only teaching pants did not constitute a “large class” compared to
in large classes was one of the goals of this profes- the size of the classes that these teacher educators
sional development on actively engaging students typically teach, throughout the workshop we asked
in learning in large classes. the teacher educators to think about the use of these
strategies while considering what they know about
CONTEXT teaching large classes. By keeping this focus dur-
Kenyatta University and Syracuse University ing our discussions about the strategies, the teacher
have had an institutional linkage since 2000, which educators were able to draw on their teaching ex-
grew out of co-author Joanna Masingila’s Fulbright periences in large classes to think constructively
Scholar experience at Kenyatta University in 1998. about applying them in large lecture classes.
Colleagues at the two universities have worked to- In planning this professional development
gether on co-sponsored international conferences, workshop, we decided to introduce four active
and professional development workshops for in- learning strategies each of the three days, engage
structors in Kenya. Additionally, 26 students from the teacher educators with the strategy, and then
Kenyatta University have come to Syracuse Uni- have them work on making concrete plans for us-
versity for graduate studies. ing these strategies in their teaching. The four pro-
Kenyatta University and Syracuse University fessors, Drs. Jeffery Mangram, Marcelle Haddix,
were awarded a grant funded by the United States (cid:48)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:50)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:77)(cid:76)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:45)(cid:82)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)
Agency for International Development in 2011 strategies that they were familiar with and that rep-
through the Africa – U.S. Higher Education Initia- resented pedagogies that have the potential to ac-
(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:88)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3) tively engage students, even in large classes.
(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:76)- (cid:41)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:75)-
ties included scholar exchanges, collaborative re- er educators with the strategies of Opening Ques-
(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:88)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:90)(cid:3) (cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:18)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:50)(cid:83)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:50)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:18)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:87)(cid:15)(cid:3)
and revision based on data from recent graduates, HRASE Questioning, and Two-minute Paper. We
collaborating with educational stakeholders to im- chose Focused Listing, Note Check, Write-Pair-
prove teacher preparation and development, and Share or Think-Pair-Share, and Flipped Classroom
professional development for teacher educators for the second day. For the third day, we selected
at Kenyatta University focused on teaching large Scenarios/Case Studies, Reciprocal Questioning,
classes, integrating technology, and supporting all Visual Literacy, and Technology-based Check In.
learners. In the next section of this paper, each of the au-
In this paper, we discuss a three-day profes- thors discusses the strategies that he or she chose
sional development workshop that engaged teacher to present and the rationale for these choices. We
educators from Kenyatta University in exploring have grouped these strategies into three categories
and using active learning strategies with a particu- (cid:177)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)
lar focus on implementing them in large classes. Strategies, and Technology-supported Strategies –
Faculty members from Syracuse University and (cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:16)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:68)-
one of its partner schools led the workshop. tives.
Education courses at Kenyatta University often
(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:16)(cid:23)(cid:24)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:75)- QUESTIONING AND REFLECTION STRATEGIES
ods courses and up to 1,000 students for introduc- Masingila’s narrative. I chose Opening Ques-
tory courses. Class sessions are held in large lecture (cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:18)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:17)(cid:3)
halls and meet for three hours per week. During In this strategy, the instructor uses a question to
prior professional development workshops, the Ke- begin the lesson. The instructor presents the ques-
nyatta University teacher educators talked about (cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:18)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:51)(cid:82)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:3)
their desire to more actively engage their students another visual means, gives students a moment to
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research | Volume 4 (2015) 60
think about their response, and then asks a few stu- Opt Out allows instructors to call on another stu-
dents for their responses. This strategy is helpful dent to answer the question the previous student
in focusing students’ attention on the lesson’s topic (cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)-
and provides the instructor with useful feedback on dent and have that student explain the answer to
what the students know and do not know about the the class. Again, the expectation is that everyone
topic. During the workshop, I engaged the teacher is expected to actively participate. An additional
educators with this opening question: “Take a mo- complementary strategy to these two strategies is
(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:92)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3) Stretch It (Lemov, 2010). After answering a ques-
contribute their ideas in class. Come up with a pos- tion, Stretch It is a technique in which the instructor
itive and a negative example.” asks additional questions to extend the response,
(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:87)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3) and thus the learning, even further. Such questions
minutes to implement and has the potential to get as, “How? and “Why?” are repeatedly asked. Are
students thinking about a topic related to the day’s there alternative ways to answer the questions? Are
lesson. I chose this strategy because it is one that there related skills that can be integrated into the
can be used in a lecture hall with large classes, it answer? Consequently, as I explained Cold Call and
is fairly easy to implement even for those instruc- No Opt Out to the workshop participants, I began
tors who typically use only a lecture approach, and using Stretch It to extend and deepen the learning.
it supports students’ learning by focusing them on Ochanji’s narrative. On day one of the pro-
the topic for the lesson. fessional development workshop, I introduced
Mangram’s narrative. (cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)- the HRASE questioning strategy. This strategy
ing strategy that I chose to present to the instruc- is utilized for initiating questions at an appropri-
tors was Cold Call. I chose this strategy because (cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:73)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:73)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)
instructors of large classes are often reluctant to ac- challenging questions. It is typically used follow-
tively engage their students in such a setting (Biggs, ing a student learning activity. The strategy starts
1999). Cold Call refers to the teaching strategy in with “safe” questions which are necessary to avoid
which the instructor randomly calls on students to (cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)
answer questions or make comments, even though strategy emphasizes students’ prior experiences
a student may not have their hand raised (Lemov, and uses these experiences to build relationships,
2010). This technique is not to be used as a disci- apply knowledge, and create explanations. This
plining technique. Instead, the technique implicitly strategy was suggested by Penick et al. (1996) as a
communicates four key expectations: (1) students questioning strategy particularly suited to science
should pay attention; (2) students should partici- teaching in that it emphasizes students’ prior ex-
pate; (3) instructors will call on other students be- periences and uses these experiences to build re-
side those who raise their hands; and (4) instructors lationships, apply knowledge, and create explana-
will check for understanding as the lesson or lec- (cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:53)(cid:36)(cid:54)(cid:40)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)
ture is being taught. stages that frame the instructors’ questions. These
As I explained the technique during the work- stages are outlined in Figure 1.
shop, I randomly called on instructors, asking
“What did you hear me say?” or “Could you explain HISTORY – QUESTIONS THAT RELATE TO
that concept in your own words?” Immediately, the STUDENTS’ EXPERIENCE:
instructors were taken aback because they felt that I • What did you do . . . ?
was putting them on the spot. Eventually, they un- • What happened when you . . . ?
derstood that Cold Call is designed to send an im- • What happened next . . . ?
plicit expectation – everyone is expected to partici-
pate and actively engage with the lesson content. RELATIONSHIPS – QUESTIONS THAT ENGAGE
Some instructors may think this technique is STUDENTS IN COMPARING IDEAS, ACTIVITIES,
problematic because students may simply say, “I DATA, ETC.:
do not know.” To respond to such comments, I em- • How does this compare to . . . ?
ployed the complementary learning strategy of No • What else does this relate to . . . ?
Opt Out with Cold Call (Lemov, 2010). Simply, No • What do all these procedures have in common ?
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Mangram, Haddix, Ochanji & Masingila 61
APPLICATION – QUESTIONS THAT REQUIRE tive learning strategies in her education courses
STUDENTS TO USE KNOWLEDGE IN NEW and has experienced her university instructors us-
CONTEXTS: ing these strategies to engage her and her class-
• How could this idea be used to design . .? (cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:51)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:86)(cid:3)
• What recognized safety issues could this so- that the secondary students in her classes are not
lution solve? used to being actively engaged in class. In contrast,
• What evidence do we have that supports ? they are used to simply taking notes that the teach-
er gives and not participating in class. When she
SPECULATION – QUESTIONS THAT REQUIRE tries to engage the students actively in class, they
THINKING BEYOND GIVEN INFORMATION: are silent and do not participate. Margaret believes
• What would happen if you changed . . . ? that her students will learn more if they are actively
• What might the next appropriate step be ? engaged in the lessons and wants to implement ac-
• What potential problems may result from ? tive learning strategies. How should she begin?
I asked the teacher educators to read the sce-
EXPLANATION – QUESTIONS THAT GET AT nario/case study, then discuss it with a partner and
UNDERLYING REASONS, PROCESSES, AND answer the question. I asked them to be ready to
MECHANISMS: share their answer with others. I chose this strategy
• How does that work ? because of the potential to use scenarios based on
• How can we account for . . . ? classroom teaching with the opportunity for these
• (cid:58)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:77)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:34) teacher educators to engage prospective teachers in
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Figure 1. HRASE Questioning Hierarchy (Penick Mangram’s narrative. I chose Reciprocal
(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:25)(cid:12)(cid:3) Questioning as the strategy I presented on day
three of the workshop. Regarding this strategy,
In the professional development workshop, I the instructor asks the students to generate effec-
modeled this strategy through the use of a hands-on tive questions about the content materials that they
science lesson on simple electric circuits in which are eventually going to ask of each other. In some
the instructors participated and I used the strategy instances, the lecture notes can be used to gener-
to pose questions about the activity. ate the questions. As a group, we discussed the im-
Masingila’s narrative. I chose Scenarios/Case portance of teaching prospective teachers how to
Studies as the strategy I presented on the third day identify and ask effective questions. We discussed
of the workshop. In this strategy, the instructor pro- types of question stems that could be used such
vides students with a relevant example of a con- as comprehension question stems: What does…
cept, theory, issue, or topic that relates to the day’s mean? Why is…important? How could…be used
lesson. Students read the scenario/case study and to…? We discussed connector question stems such
then discuss and analyze it with a partner or small as: Explain why…and how…? How are …and…
group. The focus is on applying ideas that the stu- similar? How are…and…different? How does…tie
dents have learned during the course. If desired, the in with…that we learned before? Again, this tech-
instructor could have students present their analy- nique can be used before, during, or at the end of
sis of the scenario/case study to other small groups a lecture.
or record their analysis so the instruction can draw Since I introduced Reciprocal Questioning on
from it for a whole group discussion. If students day three of the workshop, I asked the instructors
are familiar with using scenarios/case studies, the to generate reciprocal questions about the content
instructor could have students develop their own they learned over the past two days. I then had
relevant scenarios/case studies and exchange them the instructors turn and ask each other the ques-
with other students for discussion and analysis. The tions, reciprocating answers and questions back
scenario/case study I provided the teacher educa- and forth with each other. This strategy motivates
tors with was the following: the students to think deeply about the information
Ms. Margaret Wambua is a student teacher on in their notes by asking them to generate germane
teaching practice. She has learned about using ac- questions about the information therein. I did ask
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research | Volume 4 (2015) 62
a variety of groups to share their questions and re- any trends or thoughts regarding any of the strate-
sponses. I used Cold Call, No Opt Out and Stretch gies. I then used Cold Call to begin a brief review
It to engage the entire group. of yesterday’s information while also stretching the
concepts where possible. This strategy can be used
WRITING STRATEGIES before, during, or at the end of a lecture. Focused
Masingila’s narrative. The strategy I chose listing can be also used to analyze readings. Two to
for the second day was Note Check. When using three minutes are needed to employ this strategy.
this strategy, the instructor has each student part- Haddix’s narrative. The whole-group learn-
ner with someone nearby and compare notes, with ing strategies that I selected for the three days each
the focus on summarizing key information and focused on literacy skills in two areas: writing to
locating any misunderstandings. The instructor learn and visual literacy. Writing to learn activities
could also have students generate a question from are planned or impromptu informal writing tasks
this partner discussion or solve a problem posed by that help students think through key concepts or
the instructor related to the notes. Some instruc- ideas presented in a class (cf. Readence, Bean &
tors might think that using this strategy will be Baldwin, 2012). Writing to learn activities help stu-
problematic since students may not take notes, but dents develop a deeper understanding of new con-
rather rely on their peers to take notes for them. cepts introduced, and they allow students an op-
However, this strategy does not involve students portunity to make their own connections with the
giving each other their notes; rather, students are ideas being presented. Given the large lecture-size
comparing their notes with each other and working classes at Kenyatta University, the instructors have
(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)- little to no control over how students make mean-
ing. Instructors can support students in learning ing of the course material. They work to make the
good note-taking skills, as well as gain information information as accessible and engaging as pos-
about whether or not students are able to identify sible with hundreds of students in a class setting.
key ideas in a topic. By introducing writing to learn strategies, instruc-
To engage the teacher educators in exploring tors provide students with tools to be independent
(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:78)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3) thinkers and learners and to best manage their own
engaging students in learning and gave some tips learning. I wanted to also present strategies where
for implementation while they took notes. I then the instructors did not feel that they needed to be
asked them to compare their notes with a partner, completely hands-on in order for the strategy to be
focusing on summarizing key information and lo- effective.
cating misconceptions. I also asked them to gener- (cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)
ate one question about this topic. This strategy can the Two-minute Paper, a writing to learn task. In
be implemented in as little as two to three minutes. this strategy, the instructor pauses and asks stu-
I chose this strategy because Kenyatta University dents to write in response to a question, a state-
instructors are heavily reliant on students taking ment, or a digital or visual aid presented on a
notes, but they may not be using the student notes PowerPoint slide. The strategy can be used at any
in the lesson or monitoring what kind of notes stu- point in a lecture. Prior to beginning a lecture, an
dents are taking. instructor might ask students to take two minutes
Mangram’s narrative. The strategy I chose on to write about what they have learned from the
the second day of the workshop was Focused List- week’s assigned readings, or during the lecture, the
ing. In using this strategy, the instructor asks the instructor might pause and ask students to respond
(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3) to a quote in two minutes. However, this strategy is
matter by creating a list of the terms or ideas re- particularly useful at the end as a way of encourag-
(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:41)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3) ing students to summarize the day’s content. For
introduce a new strategy on day two of the work- (cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:179)(cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:191)-
shop, I asked the instructors to list and explain the nal two minutes of class, write a summary of what
strengths and weaknesses of all of the active learn- you are taking away from today’s lecture and what
ing strategies we discussed the previous day. This questions you still have.” The two-minute paper
allowed me to check for understanding and notice encourages students to put information in their
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Mangram, Haddix, Ochanji & Masingila 63
own words, helping them internalize it and iden- quote from the TED Talk followed by a question:
tify gaps in their understanding. When collected “Now, I loved those American and British
at the end of the period, the two-minute paper can books I read. They stirred my imagination. They
serve as a classroom assessment technique to help opened up new worlds for me. But the unintended
instructors gauge how well students are learning consequence was that I did not know that people
the material, what they understand, and what the like me could exist in literature. So what the dis-
instructor needs to spend more time on. covery of African writers did for me was this: It
Anticipating that some students may think that saved me from having a single story of what books
two minutes is not a lot of time to write anything are.” (Adichie, 2009)
(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)
time and they have nothing to write, I also intro- WHAT IS THE DANGER OF A SINGLE STORY?
duced two additional “writing to learn” strategies Spend the next two minutes responding in writ-
that require students to summarize ideas or articu- ing to this question.
late their points with restrictions. For example, in- I allowed the instructors a few moments to
structors might begin a lecture by asking students write quietly about the material and then asked
to summarize what they already know about a top- them to pair up with someone to share their re-
ic in no more than six words. Instructors might also sponses. Finally, I asked a few volunteers to share
capitalize on students’ use of social media by ask- what they discussed in their pairs. In the end, each
ing students to live tweet in 144 characters during group posed new insights and questions for the
the lecture ideas that resonate with them on Twitter. larger discussion.
The second strategy I presented, on day two, On day three, visual literacy was the active
was the Write-Pair-Share (or Think-Pair-Share) learning strategy I shared with the Kenyatta Uni-
strategy. Write-Pair-Share is an active learning versity’s instructors. Visual literacy is the ability
strategy that engages students with material on to interpret, recognize, appreciate, and understand
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group. It consists of three steps. First, the instruc- (cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:92)(cid:80)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:23)(cid:12)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:57)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:3)
tor poses a prepared question, posts a quote from in many formats. During the workshop, we brain-
the reading, or presents a visual or digital aid and stormed various kinds of visual aids that we use in
asks individuals to write (or think) about it quietly. our teaching. Some examples of visual aids include
Second, students pair up with someone sitting near DVDs, videos, YouTube clips, advertisements,
them and read their responses to each other. Third, maps, and political cartoons.
(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:72)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:80)- I explained that the use of visual literacy com-
(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:93)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:17)(cid:3) plements many of the other strategies presented.
When used at the beginning of a lecture, a Write- For example, the use of a visual aid can be incor-
Pair-Share strategy can help students organize porated with the Write-Pair-Share strategy. At any
prior knowledge and brainstorm questions. When point of a lecture, the instructor can present a visual
used later in the session, the strategy can help stu- image on a PowerPoint slide and give the students
dents summarize what they are learning, apply it a few moments to write or think quietly about the
to novel situations, and integrate new information image and what meaning they derive from it. Stu-
with what they already know. The strategy works dents pair up with a partner and share their written
well with groups of various sizes and can be com- responses. Finally, the instructor can ask for a few
pleted in as little as two or three minutes, making group volunteers to share what they discussed.
it an ideal active learning strategy for classes in
which lecture is the primary instructional method. TECHNOLOGY-SUPPORTED STRATEGIES
In our professional development workshop, I Ochanji’s narrative. On day two, the Flipped
modeled for the instructors how they might use this Classroom was the second strategy I introduced
strategy during a lecture. First, I asked instructors to the instructors. This is an instructional strategy
to view a TED Talk by Nigerian writer Chimam- that dedicates more class time to hands-on learn-
anda Ngozi Adichie titled, “The Danger of a Single ing while replacing instructors with supplemental
Story.” Then, on a PowerPoint slide, I presented a materials such as podcasts, screencasts and videos
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research | Volume 4 (2015) 64
that students can view outside of the class (Bull et (cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)-
al., 2012). The students receive the key instruction- room, they remain the essential ingredient that en-
al elements outside of class. Such instruction can (cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:86)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:3)
be provided through videos, podcasts, websites, tasked the instructors to consider the activities they
DVDs, CDs, or any other form that provides a clear would use during class time so that they could con-
instructional message. In the classroom, students tinually observe their students, providing them with
work together under the guidance of the teacher in feedback relevant in the moment, and assess their
applying the instruction to complex problems. work. As professional educators, they would need to
A number of resources have been developed to (cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)
support this strategy. For example, on its network improve their instruction, accept constructive criti-
(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:69)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3) (cid:11)(cid:90)(cid:90)(cid:90)(cid:17)(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:17)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:12)(cid:15)(cid:3) (cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3) (cid:41)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3) cism, and tolerate controlled chaos in their class-
(cid:47)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:41)(cid:47)(cid:49)(cid:12)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:86)- rooms.
(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3) (cid:83)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3) (cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3) (cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3) (cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3) (cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:69)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3) (cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3) A number of technology-based resources and
FLIP. They include (a) a Flexible environment, (b) strategies exist that allow instructors to instantly
a Learning culture, (c) Intentional content, and (d) check on student learning progress. On day three, I
a Professional educator. These four pillars provide a introduced one of these strategies during the active
(cid:73)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:93)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:89)(cid:76)- learning training workshop. This strategy was the
ronment that allows for a variety of learning modes. use of TodaysMeet accessible at www.todaysmeet.
In presenting this strategy to the instructors, I com. Designed as a backchannel for the conversa-
wanted them to consider the learning environment tion behind what is going on, TodaysMeet creates
by challenging them to consider how they could a personal chat room that the instructor can set up
physically rearrange their learning spaces to ac- and invite the students.
commodate a lesson or unit to support either group The students can quickly and easily write com-
work or independent study. I wanted them to create ments or questions for anyone in the chat room to
(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:76)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3) see. The instructor creates a virtual meeting room
(cid:90)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:76)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:68)- at the beginning of a lecture and makes the website
tions of student timelines for learning and in their link accessible to the students at the beginning of
assessments of student learning. class. Students use the live stream to make com-
In creating a learning culture, I wanted the in- ments or ask questions. The instructor does not need
structors to consider ways in which they deliberate- to pose a prompt for the students to respond to; stu-
ly shift instruction to a learner-centered approach, dents are free to pose comments or questions that
where in-class time is dedicated to exploring top- are important to them. The instructor may check
ics in greater depth and creating rich learning op- the web page during the lecture to see what issues
portunities. As a result, students would be actively or questions the students have and respond to them
involved in knowledge construction as they par- or modify instruction to address them. Instructors
ticipate in and evaluate their learning in a manner may use that feedback to tailor the presentation,
that is personally meaningful. I also wanted them to sharpen the points, and address audience needs in
consider what content they need to teach and what real time (or beyond the lecture). During the profes-
materials students should explore on their own. The sional development workshop, the instructors had
(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3) the opportunity to practice setting up a TodaysMeet
students out of class cannot be a direct replica of account and a meeting room for one of their classes.
what the classroom instruction would have been. A
lecture presented as a podcast for example could be ENGAGING PARTICIPANTS IN USING THE STRATEGIES
organized by sub-topics that are about 5-10 minutes After introducing, modeling and engaging the
long so that student can come back to review it as workshop participants with the new strategies, we
needed when working on applying that knowledge. each worked with a smaller group of instructors to
Lastly, I emphasized that the role of a profes- debrief and discuss the pros and cons of implement-
sional educator is even more important, and often ing these strategies in our own practice. Our dis-
(cid:80)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3) cussion was organized around two items: one, iden-
traditional one. While professional educators take tify some of the roadblocks to implementing each
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Mangram, Haddix, Ochanji & Masingila 65
strategy in your classes and two, think of examples sentational structure of their lectures, as well as
from one of your own lectures/materials and de- encourage their students to be more active about
velop a plan for implementing each strategy. engaging the material in that particular setting.
(cid:37)(cid:72)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:78)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)- The instructors did note that it was problematic to
(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)- call on students in the rear of a lecture hall because
dents in learning with these strategies, including: the students would not be able to hear each other’s
(a) they facilitate students’ conceptual understand- comments. Additionally, instructors feared that
ing; (b) the instructor is seen as a facilitator of many students would say “I don’t know,” or that this
learning, rather than a giver of information; (c) stu- technique was better utilized in the seminar sec-
(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:78)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:77)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3) tions and not the lecture. Hearing these concerns,
information; and (d) the strategies help with inte- we suggested, where possible, for the instructors to
gration of information. move off stage away from the podium and engage
While the teacher educators could appreciate the students while also encouraging them to speak
the strategies introduced, the number one road- up in such a space.
block was managing large class sizes. Utilizing (cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:3) (cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3) (cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3) (cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3) (cid:43)(cid:53)(cid:36)(cid:54)(cid:40)(cid:3) (cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)
these strategies increased the possibility of loss of (cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:70)(cid:76)-
classroom control. For example, when an instructor ence as a limitation. They also pointed out that
allows students time to write on their own, there is this strategy was limited to activity-based lessons.
no guarantee that students are actually using the However, when challenged to think about other
(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:30)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:71)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:73)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3) content areas that may involve student hands-on
the students’ focus on the actual lecture once you activities, they were able to generalize the use of
“let them loose” to work on an individual task. (cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:53)(cid:36)(cid:54)(cid:40)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:72)-
Another idea presented by the Kenyatta Uni- ography, poetry, music and other broad range of
versity instructors was that they felt the strategies (cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:74)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:3)
were better suited for use in the primary and sec- could be applied in large classes and the dilemma
ondary schools, where teachers have smaller class of not being able to model it to prospective teachers
sizes. These were strategies that they wanted to who could easily apply this strategy in their sec-
teach their prospective teachers to use in their pro- ondary school classrooms, was brought to bear.
fessional practice, but they did not see how they While the workshop participants were inter-
could actually model these strategies within the ested in using Scenarios/Case Studies, they won-
context of their large lecture classes. This present- (cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)
(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:77)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:178)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3) or scenarios. We discussed that they could develop
teach methods without modeling those methods appropriate examples by drawing on their own
or providing opportunities for student teachers to teaching experience and experience working with
practice the strategies in their own learning? prospective teachers. For example, the instructors
(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:68)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3) could generate case studies around issues such as
(cid:50)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:52)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:18)(cid:53)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:3) engaging with parents, teaching controversial or
get students involved from the beginning of the les- (cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:73)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:79)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)-
son. They also mentioned that this strategy seemed versation with a school administrator, or handling
as if it would be fairly easy for them to integrate a student cheating incident.
into their current lecture method. Because of all the Acknowledging that Reciprocal Questioning
information presented during a lecture, the instruc- was an effective strategy, the instructors discussed
tors believed this strategy was an effective means the different types of question they could ask their
(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:192)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3) students. Further, they discussed how to teach their
well as speculate about future information without students to generate and ask effective questions as
using an inordinate amount of time. (cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:83)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:3)
Similarly, the instructors had positive com- of a lesson. Interestingly, many of the instructors
ments about the Cold Call, No Opt Out, and Stretch suggested starting with the HRASE model. For
It strategy. The instructors believed this particular instance, the instructors noted that they wanted to
strategy could motivate them to rethink the pre- teach their prospective teachers to ask students eas-
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
Journal of Instructional Research | Volume 4 (2015) 66
(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:78)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:3) for providing learning material for students to re-
questions. The instructors wanted the prospective view outside of the class were regarded as either
teachers to use a graduated questioning approach. being too expensive, too time consuming, or both.
Note Check was another strategy that the teach- (cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:70)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)
er educators thought they could implement fairly technology support necessary to create podcasts,
easily. All participants indicated that they currently CD ROMS, or DVDs and to upload such material
expect students to take notes, but they do not check on the learning management system. They, howev-
these notes in any way. Several teacher educators er, noted that these resources could lead to positive
were quite enthusiastic about using the Note Check returns in the long run since such material may be
strategy to allow students to hold each other ac- created once and used several times in subsequent
countable for the notes they are taking. semesters. The concerns regarding resource avail-
The instructors believed they could immedi- ability and support are consistent with previous
ately implement Focused Listing in their lectures. research recommendations on the need to evalu-
Realizing that Focused Listing complemented Note (cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:192)(cid:76)(cid:83)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)
Checking and Reciprocal Questioning, the instruc- learning (Bergmann & Sams, 2012).
(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)- Similar technology support challenges were
ing questions that would motivate their students to (cid:76)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:78)(cid:16)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)-
strategically review their notes. Next, the instruc- gies. Moreover, even though TodaysMeet require
tors proposed having the students create question students to sign in with a username, it is possible
stems about the notes that they previously reviewed (cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:88)-
as well as have the students then ask each other sive notes to the instructor. The limit to the number
(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:77)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3) of words allowable for each post was also seen as a
the instructors stated that they would use this strat- limitation. Most instructors nevertheless saw many
egy at the beginning and end of their classes. (cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:191)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:86)(cid:48)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:88)(cid:86)-
In general, the teacher educators felt it was im- ing the tool as a record of attendance and a medium
portant to encourage their students’ writing prac- for teaching digital citizenry.
tices, and they saw strategies like the Two-minute
Paper, Write/Pair/Share, and the incorporation of CONCLUSION
Visual Literacy as exemplary strategies for doing (cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:82)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:16)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:68)(cid:79)-
so. They saw these “writing to learn” strategies as ity learning experience despite large class sizes. In-
ways to further students’ comprehension and ap- (cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:73)(cid:73)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)
plication of new topics, and they felt that the use of learning experience for instructors and students in
visual images was critical to teaching large lecture- Sub-Saharan nations. By using the aforementioned
style classes. Visual literacy was viewed as a way active learning strategies, the lecture method can
to enhance the lecture and show illustrative ex- be transformed into a tool that promotes active
amples of content material. The main reservation (cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:37)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)-
was that the teacher educators would not be able to tion is impacting the number of students attending
collect written exercises from students to review or higher education, schools of education must modi-
provide feedback; they simply did not have enough fy how they teach their methods courses in order to
time or resources. Incorporating these writing model for their pre-service teachers how to actively
strategies was primarily a way to support students’ engage classroom with large numbers of students.
independent learning. The teacher educators ques- (cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:191)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)
tioned whether given the high stakes testing nature only higher education, but also primary and sec-
of their context if students might expect some form ondary educational institutions that are also facing
of feedback or formal assessment of their writing, large class sizes in Sub-Saharan nations.
(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:81)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:69)(cid:77)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3) While these active learning strategies would
strategies. work well with any size of class, we believe this
With regard to the Flipped Learning strategy, challenge is an opportunity to rethink the lecture
the instructors pointed out the lack of resources as method, to deepen and engage the content in more
an impediment. The alternative media necessary complex ways, and to move to a more student cen-
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY