ERIC EJ1116796: MOOCs as Change Agents to Boost Innovation in Higher Education Learning Arenas

2016·0.21 MB·English

by  ERIC

education
sciences
Article
MOOCs as Change Agents to Boost Innovation in
Higher Education Learning Arenas
EbbaOssiannilsson1,*,FahriyeAltinay2andZehraAltinay2
1 TheSwedishAssociationforDistanceEducation,andOssiannnilssonQualityinOpenOnline
Learning(QOOL)Consultancy,KungOscarsväg27,Lund22235,Sweden
2 FacultyofEducation,NearEastUniversity,NearEastBoulevard,Nicosia99138/TRNCMersin10,Turkey;
[email protected](F.A.);[email protected](Z.A.)
* Correspondence:[email protected];Tel.:[phone]
AcademicEditor:JamesAlbright
Received:3April2016;Accepted:1August2016;Published:6August2016
Abstract: Massiveopenonlinecourses(MOOCs)provideopportunitiesforlearnerstobenefitfrom
initiativesthatarepromotedbyprestigiousuniversitiesworldwide. TheintroductionofMOOCsin
2008hassincethentransformededucationglobally. Consequently,MOOCsshouldbeacknowledged
asapedagogicalinnovationandrecognizedaschangeagentsandfacilitatorsinthetransitionof
openingupeducation,inthetransitionfromtraditionalcampuseducationtoopenonlinelearning
arenas,whichincreaseslearners’accesstoandequityinlifelonglearning. Thereisaneedtoconsider
MOOCs as a natural part of universities’ course offerings and business models and to recognize
MOOCsasvaluableforlearners. Furthermore,MOOCsshouldberegardedasvaluablelearning
andeducationalinitiativesinthesamewaythatjournalsandbooksarerecognized. Learnersshould
beabletotakeMOOCseitherattheirownuniversityorfromotherproviders. Moreover,MOOCs
shouldbevaluedinpolicies,strategies,andactionplans,andtheyshouldbeincludedinprocessesof
qualityenhancementandqualityassurance. Thispaperpointsoutthemeritsoftheinnovativeuseof
MOOCsinhighereducation. Inthisqualitativeliteratureresearch,acontentmethodanalysiswas
conductedthroughasystematicreviewoftheliterature. Throughthefindingsfromtheliterature
researchitissuggestedthatMOOCscouldbepermanentchangeagentsthatboostinnovationin
higher education learning arenas. In particular, the findings revealed the benefits of MOOCs in
variousareas,suchaslifelonglearning,professionalcompetencedevelopment,validationoflearning,
anddegreerecognition,inadditiontoclarifyingseveralbusinessmodelsofhighereducation.
Keywords: businessmodels;changeagents;competencedevelopment;innovation;learningarenas;
lifelonglearningMOOCs;massiveopenonlinecourses;openonlinelearning;recognition;validation
1. Introduction
Massiveopenonlinecourses(MOOCs)havebecomepartofthetransformationineducationby
providingopportunitiesforlearnerstobenefitfromtheinitiativespromotedbyprestigiousuniversities
worldwide [1,2]. The literature has shown that MOOCs not only have filled a huge gap in the
educationalopportunitiesavailableforlifelonglearnersbutalsohavewidenedtheirparticipationin
highereducation[1]. Hence,MOOCsshouldberecognizedaslearningresourcesinhighereducation.
Scholarsandresearchershavearguedthatitisalsotimetoacknowledgethatthesystematicform
of higher education, to which most institutions still adhere, has failed [2–4]. Traditionally, higher
educationisorganizedusingastrict,linear“downpipe”approachinwhichstudentstakebachelor’s,
master’s, and PhD degrees sequentially, usually at the same university. Instead, in real life, most
studentswhoareenrolledinhighereducationareaged25yearsorolder. Theyenterandexitthe
educationalsystemaccordingtotheirlifesituations,theirneeds,demands,andtheirmotivationfor
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learning. Toaccommodatethesestudents,MOOCsshouldbeincludedinbusinessmodelsofhigher
education. Hence,thecoursesofferedbyuniversitiesshouldbeorganizedusingaserendipitousand
rhizomaticapproachinordertomeettheneedsofbothlearnersandsociety[3,5]. Initscommunication
regardingtheopeningupeducationtoboostinnovationandskillsinorderforstudentstobemore
competitiveineducationandthelabormarket,theEuropeanCommissionstatedthereisanurgent
needforhighereducationinstitutionstoreorganizeandoffercoursesthatembracetheincreasing
digitalization of societies [1]. The European Commission also stated that in recognition of their
potential, both MOOCs and open educational resources (OER) [6] should be embraced as default
learningresources. Furthermore,theystatedintheirrecommendationstheurgentneedforvalidation
of formal, non-formal and informal learning to promote lifelong learning. The commission also
emphasizedtheimportanceofrecognizingtheroleofMOOCsinraisingtheskilllevelsandincreasing
theemployabilityofindividuals. TheEuropeanUnionhasthusdevelopedseveralinstrumentsto
supporttherecognitionandtransparencyofformal,non-formal,andinformallearning,i.e.,knowledge,
skills, andcompetencesinordertoenableindividualstostudyandworkanywhereinEurope[1].
Accordingly,MOOCsshouldbeconsideredasfollows:
‚ Valuedasanaturalpartofuniversities’courseofferings
‚ Valuedasvaluablelearningandeducationalinitiatives
‚ Recognizedasvalidcoursestakenatlearners’ownuniversitiesorfromotherproviders
‚ Valuedaspedagogicalinnovations
‚ Valuedaschangeagentsandfacilitatorsinthetransitiontoopeningupeducation
‚ Valuedasfosteringinnovation,access,equity,inclusion
‚ Valuedaslifelonglearningopportunitiesandcontinuingprofessionaldevelopment
‚ Valuedinpolicy,strategies,andactionplans
‚ Includedinqualityenhancementandqualityassuranceprocesses
In this respect MOOCs could serve as a new business model of innovation strategies for
highereducation.
ThisliteratureresearchaimstorevealthemeritsofMOOCsinpromotingtheinnovationand
qualityenhancementofhighereducation. AstheaimofthestudyistoarguefortheroleofMOOCsas
changeagents,andduetotheusedkeywords,mostreferencesthussupportthat. Although,critical
issuesandchallengesarealsoaddressedintheliteraturereview. Hence,someofthemareaddressed
as challenges in this article. However, as there has not been any systematic review of limitations
andbarriersofintroductionofMOOCs,therecanbenoclaimsbytheauthorstoaddresstheentire
pictureoflimitationsandbarriers. TheimplementationofMOOCsfacilitatestransitionstoincreased
possibilitiesforlifelonglearning,includingcontinuingprofessionaldevelopmentinhighereducation.
ThisbusinessmodelcouldbeusedtopromoteinnovationandMOOCsasagentsoftransformation
andchange,tovalidateandrecognizelearnersformalandinformallearning,andfinallytocontribute
tooffersandstrategieshighereducation.
TheDefinitionandRoleofMOOCs
MOOCsemergedandthenevolvedinthefirstdecadeofthe21stcentury[4]. WhenMOOCswere
firstintroducedin2008,theyrapidlybecameapopularmodeoflearning. Globally,theyattracted
the attention of both learners and other stakeholders. Indeed, 2012 was designated the year of
MOOCs[7,8]. AlthoughMOOCsaredeliveredinanonlineenvironment,theyhavemajordifferences
from previous approaches to online education, the most significant of which are that MOOCs are
freeofchargeandopentoall. Theyareoftenshortcoursesthatareorganizedasseveralmodules.
Each module is designed to be covered in a week, and the entire course usually lasts six to eight
weeks. Generally, MOOCshavenoprerequisites, andlearnersdonothaveanydirectobligations,
more than for themselves. Learners’ participation in a MOOC is voluntary and depends on their
Educ.Sci.2016,6,25 3of13
interests,motivations,andneeds[7,9,10]. MOOCsbringtogetherpeoplewhoareinterestedinlearning
aboutthesametopic. SomelearnerstakeMOOCsforthejoyoflearning,whereasotherswanttogain
knowledgeinordertopursuefurtherstudiesoremployment. Participantsareinvited,butarenot
obliged,tocompleteassignments. Learnersdonotreceiveformalaccreditationorcertificationwhen
theycompleteaMOOC.BecauseMOOCsarescalableandoftenhavethousandsofparticipants,they
attractsubstantiallylargeraudiencesthantraditionalonlineeducationdoes. MOOCsusuallyinclude
coursefacilitatorsandexpertswhoguidethelearningprocess. ThecollaborativespaceofaMOOC
canspanbetweenmanydifferentplatforms,digitaltechnologies,andsocialmedia. Thefollowing
definition [11], which is shared by many European partners in the MOOC movement, positions
MOOCsasfollows:
[MOOCsare]onlinecoursesdesignedforlargenumbersofparticipants... [They]canbe
accessedbyanyoneanywhereaslongastheyhaveanInternetconnection, areopento
everyonewithoutentryqualifications,andofferafull/completecourseexperienceforfree.
Inthelastfouryears,morethan35millionpeoplehaveenrolledinonlinecourses.Theenrollments
in these courses doubled from 2014 to 2015 [12]. Currently, more than 500 universities, mainly
prestigiousandhighlyranked,offerMOOCs,andapproximately4500courseswereavailablein2015
whenCoursera,edX,FutureLearn,andUdacitywereknownasthebigfourMOOCproviders[8].
MostcoursesareofferedinEnglish,butseveralareofferedinotherwidelyusedlanguages,suchas
SpanishandChinese.
ThefirstMOOCswerebasedontheconceptofconnectivism[13]andwereofferedmainlythrough
OERs,socialmedia,andrealsimplesyndication(RSS).However,thisisnolongerthecase,especially
regardingtheuseofRSS.However,interactionsamonglearnersandwiththecoursematerialsusually
still take place through social media and networking. A set of freely accessible online resources
providesthecoursecontentandthestudymaterials. BecauseMOOCsdonotusuallyoffercertification,
degrees,orcredits,learnersreceiveabadgeorsimilarrewardforcompletingthecourses. Since2008,
MOOCshavebeendevelopedthrough“freemium”models,whicharebasedonapricingstrategyfor
aproductorservice(typicallyadigitalofferingorapplication,suchassoftware,media,games,and
webservices)thatisprovidedfreeofcharge. Fees(i.e.,apremium)arechargedforextraproprietary
functionalitiesorfeatures.Inthiscase,thefirstlevelsoftheMOOCarefree;iflearnerswantacertificate,
studyguidance,orcontactwithexperts,theypayapremium[14]. Significantly,asMOOCsprovide
courseexperiencesandcompetencedevelopmentinthelifelonglearningprocess,suchinnovative
strategiesbecomenewbusinessmodelsforhighereducation.
OnlinelearningintheformofMOOCshasthepotentialtochangethelocusoflearningbymoving
itbeyondformalizedteaching,traditionallearningmanagementsystems,andordinarycampuscourses.
MOOCsholdthepotentialfor“wall-lessschools”wherestudentsnolongercometoclassbutrather
follow their curriculum from wherever they are. Therefore, MOOCs serve as particle accelerators
of learning. Through MOOCs, new sources of data are provided, such as learning analytics [15].
Throughlearninganalytics,learners,academics,andinstitutionsobtaindataonahugerangeofissues,
whichcanfacilitatecoursedevelopment,supportorganizations,andmaplearningstylesandpatterns,
therebyfosteringandenhancingpersonallearning. BecauseMOOCsarescalable,theyproviderich
opportunities for large-scale experiments that can advance the science of learning and innovative
pedagogicaldevelopment[15].
SinceMOOCsfirstattractedwidespreadattention,newlinesofresearchhavebeendeveloped,
butthefindingshavehadfewimplicationsforteachingandlearning[16]. AccordingtoRaffaghelli,
Cucchiara, and Persico [17] (p. 1), the emerging research on MOOCs, which is still in its infancy,
reliesheavilyoncasestudiesandtheory. Theyarguedthattheresearchisjustbeginningtoidentify
suitablemethodstodealwithlargecohortsoflearners,verylargeamountsofdata,andnewways
oflearning. TheyalsoemphasizedthatthecurrentknowledgeofMOOCsisfragmentarybecause
ofthe“differentepistemologicalandontologicalconceptionsoftheauthorsofthepapersaboutthe
natureoftheissuesfacedandthewaytheyshouldbestudied”. ForMOOCresearchtoadvancethe
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scienceoflearning,researchers,coursedevelopers,andotherstakeholdersmustadvancethefield
alongthreetrajectories: Studiesofengagementinresearchaboutlearning;investigationsofindividual
coursesandcomparisonsacrosscontexts;andrelianceonpostadhocanalysesandthegreateruse
ofmultidisciplinaryandexperimentaldesigns[15]. AlthoughthelearningpotentialofMOOCshas
beenacknowledged,unfortunately,learnersdonotyetreceiveformalrecognition,andthecourses
arenotvalidatedinformaleducationalsettings. Accordingly,theEuropeanCommission[1],intheir
communiqué,OpeningupEducationtoBoostInnovationandDigitalSkillsinSchoolsandUniversities,
advocatedthatuniversitiesacrossthegloberecognizeandvalidateMOOCsbecausetheyareessential
inraisingtheskilllevelsandincreasingtheemployabilityofindividuals.
SincetheentranceofMOOCsintothelearninglandscapeandtheirrapiduptakebyconventional
highereducationinstitutions,theyhavefacedmajorchallengesthatarelikelytocontinueinthenear
future. Severalstakeholdersworldwide,includinglearners,havequestionedthegoals,settings,and
linearorganizationoftraditionalhighereducation. Additionally,becauseofsustainability,thereare
increasingdemandsforcollaborationamonguniversitiesalthoughtheycompeteforresearchgrants,
student enrollments, and so on. An open global educational landscape, as provided by MOOCs,
wouldallowaccesstotheworld’scollectiveexpertise,includingprestigiousinternationaluniversities.
Individualswouldhaveunlimitedchoices: inprinciple,itwouldbepossibletoapply,register,and
participateinonlineeducationintheformofMOOCsofferedbyuniversitiesaroundtheworld[18,19].
Nevertheless,thevalidationofMOOCsbyuniversitiespresentssomechallenges. MOOCsareoften
considereddisruptivebecausetheydonotfollowtraditionaleducationalnormsbutbreakfrommost
conventions,regulations,andvalues. MOOCsareperceivedasagentsofchangebecausetheywill
fosternew,innovative,andnon-traditionalregulations,values,andnorms. Thus,theyhavethepower
tofacilitatethetransitiontowardsopenonlinelearningand“opened”educationasenvisionedbythe
EuropeanCommission[1].
Basedonasystematiccontentanalysisreviewofthepresentliterature,thisstudyaimstoidentify
the trends, gaps, and criticalities that are related to the methodological approaches used in this
emergingfieldofresearch. ThestudyalsoconsiderssomeoftheopportunitiesprovidedbyMOOCs.
ItaddressesconcernsaboutthepermanenceofMOOCs,theiracceptanceandvalidationbyhigher
educational institutions, and their role as agents of change in learning arenas. Thus, the study
focusesonlifelonglearningandcontinuingprofessionaldevelopment,innovationandtransformation,
validation,andrecognition,andbusinessmodels.
2. Methods
RegardlessofthedebatebetweenthesupportersanddetractorsofMOOCs,mostpreviousstudies
embracedtheideasofMOOCs[7,8,20–22]. Previousresearchhascomprisedqualitativestudiesthat
employedthemethodologyofcontentanalysisandtheinductiveprocess. Usingthismethodology,
qualitativeresearchaimstoshowhowpatternsofproblemscouldberevealedinaninductiveprocess.
Inthismethod,themesthatemergefromtheliteratureareclusteredandthenanalyzed. Inthisregard,
athematicanalysisofrelatedstudiesisneededtounderstandtheuseofMOOCsinhighereducationas
itrelatestolifelonglearningandcompetencedevelopment,innovationandtransformation,validation
and recognition, and business models. In particular, the present literature study examines some
opportunitiesprovidedbyMOOCs,inadditiontopinpointinganddiscussingsomeconcerns.
2.1. SourcesofData
SeveralpreviousstudiesonMOOCsaspermanentlearningresourcesfocusedonlifelonglearning,
competencedevelopment,businessmodels,recognition,andvalidation. Inthepresentstudy,Google
Scholar were the main source, as well as the online database of the Taylor and Francis Group as
oneofthelargest,weresearched. InadditionpolicyreferencesastheEuropeanCommissions,and
theEuropeanUniversityAssociations(EUA)documentationwasthefoundationforthisstudy. The
followingkeywordswereused: massiveopenonlinecourse,MOOCandlifelonglearning,competence
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development,businessmodels,validation,andrecognition. Althoughmostofthearticlesretrieved
werepublishedintheperiodfrom2011to2016,somearticlesaboutonlinelearningpracticeswere
publishedasearlyas2000.
2.2. DataAnalysis
Theidentifiedarticleswereclassifiedqualitatively[23–26],whichistypicallyusedbyresearchers
who conduct similar literature reviews, e.g., [24,27]. Although this research was not aimed at
developingagroundedtheory,thestepsdescribedbyGlaserandStrauss[25](pp. 28–52)wereused:
Identifyingaphenomenon,object,event,orsettingofinterest.
Identifyingafewlocalconcepts,principles,structuralorprocessfeaturesoftheexperienceor
phenomenonofinterest.
Makingdecisionsregardingtheinitialcollectionofdatabasedonone’sinitialunderstandingof
thephenomenon.
Thebasicunitofanalysisusedinthisstudywastheindividualarticle. Thesystematiccontent
analysisandtheinductiveprocesswereusedtoidentifythethemethatbestdescribedthefindingsof
eachstudy. Allarticleswereexaminedusingthesamemethod.
Thethematiccontentanalysiswasconductedbasedonthedatasources[26]. Thethemesthat
emergedfromtheanalysiswerecategorizedandverifiedaccordingtotheirfocus[28]. Thethemes
wereidentifiedasfollows: MOOCsasuniversityofferings,educationalmaterials,recognitionand
policy,strategy,andpedagogicalinnovation. Thesethemesthenwererelatedtothefocusofthepresent
study,whichincludeslifelonglearningandcompetencedevelopment,MOOCsasagentsofinnovation
andchange,validation,recognition,andbusinessmodels.
3. Results
The articles were classified qualitatively [23–26], although the constant-comparative method
developedbyGlaser[23]wasnotusedtoitsfullextent. Becausepreviousstudieswereconductedto
revealthemeritsofMOOCsasaninnovativestrategyinhighereducationpracticestofosterlifelong
learning and competence development, their results showed both the opportunities provided by
MOOCs but also concerns related to the permanence of MOOCs and their potential as agents of
innovationinhighereducationlearningarenas. Thepurposeofthepresentliteraturereviewwasto
exploretheimplicationsofMOOCsforlifelonglearningandcompetencedevelopment,asagentsof
innovationandchange,aswellastheirvalidation,recognition,anduseinbusinessmodelsofhigher
education. Someofthereviewedarticlesraisedasetofchallenges,whichalsoareaddressedasresults.
Theissueofqualitywasnotexplicitincludedinthekeywords,althoughitisofsignificantimportance.
Likewise,thisthemecouldbethesubjectofaseparatestudy.
Alcorn,Christensen,andKapur[29],aswellasSanchoanddeVries[30],examinedtheuseof
MOOCsinhighereducation. TheirresearchshowedhowMOOCpracticesbecomeandshouldbecome
anaturalpartofthecurriculaofferedbyuniversities. Scanlon[31]andMune[32]highlightedthat
MOOCsarevaluablelearningandeducationalinitiativesthatshouldbeusedasdefaultresourcesin
thesamewaythatscientificjournalsandtextbooksareused.
SeveralstudiesreportedthatbecauseMOOCsarepedagogicallyinnovative,itcouldbepossible
to consider policy, strategy, and action plans for their diffusion and implementation. Diver and
Martinez [33] pointed out the opportunities and challenges of the practice of MOOCs in higher
education. However,toincludeMOOCsinlearningarenas,severalissuesmustbeaddressed. Willthe
MOOCrevolutionineducationpromotechangesinpedagogy? Themainconcernthatemergedfrom
theliteraturereviewwasregardingquality. Additionally,especiallyBillingtonandFronmueller[34]
(p.38)emphasizedseveralconcerns,suchasgrading,cheating,coursecredits,learnerinteractions,
andprerequisites. Hence,thissectionwillfirstpointtothoseconcernsbeforeconsideringissueson
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lifelonglearningandcontinuingprofessionaldevelopment,validationandrecognition,andwhether
MOOCsareagentsthathavethepotentialtoboostinnovationinhighereducationlearning,andthen
finallyonbusinessmodels.
3.1. MOOCsandQuality-RelatedIssues
QualityindicatorsforMOOCsaresimilartothoseusedinordinaryqualityenhancementmodelsof
e-learningandopenonlinelearning[35].OnemodelisE-xcellence,whichisadvocatedbytheEuropean
AssociationofDistanceTeachingUniversities(EADTU).Themodelcoverssixareas: management,
curriculadesign,coursedesign,coursedelivery,studentsupport,andstaffsupport[36]. Oneapproach
toquality,whichin2016hasbeentheonlydocumentedmodeltocertifyquality,istheOpenupEd
model,whichwasdevelopedbytheEADTUbasedonE-xcellence[37].
ThisOpenupEDmodelcontributesdistinctivefeaturestotheMOOClandscape. OpenupEdaims
tocontributetotheopeningupofeducationforthebenefitofbothlearnersandsocietywhilereflecting
both European and UNESCO values such as access, equity, quality, and diversity. To ensure that
OpenupEdcoursesfulfillthismission,theyshouldincorporatethefollowingeightfeatures:
‚ Opennesstolearners—includesfreeofcharge,freeadmittance,openaccess,learnanywhereonline,
startanytime,self-pacedlearningaswellasdiversityinlanguagesandcultures.
‚ Digitalopenness—includesfreeofchargeandopenlicenses.
‚ Learner-centeredapproach—includestheremovalofallunnecessarybarrierstolearning. Courses
should aid students to construct their own learning in a rich environment and to share and
communicatetheirlearningwithothers; theyshouldnotsimplyfocusonthetransmissionof
contentknowledgetostudents.Thelearner-centeredapproachincludeslearner-centeredactivities.
‚ Independentlearning—includesbuilt-insupport,tutoring,andthebestonlineresources.
‚ Media-supportedinteraction—coursematerialsshoulduseonlineaffordances(e.g.,interactivity,
communication,collaboration)aswellasrichmedia(e.g.,videoandaudio)toengagelearners.
‚ Recognition options—the opportunity to get a badge or a certificate of course completion
(as evidence of completion). Because MOOCs are considered courses, they should offer
educationalcontent,facilitateinteractionamongpeers(includingsomebutlimitedinteraction
withacademicstaff),activities/tasks,tests,includingfeedback,some(non-formal)recognition
options,andastudyguideorsyllabus.
‚ Qualityfocus—thequalityofthecourseisassuredandisaccreditedbytheEuropeanQualification
Framework (EQF). In short, OpenupEd provides real opportunities to participate in higher
educationandqualitylearningopportunitiestoall.
‚ Spectrumofdiversity—diversityinlanguagesandcultures,approachesandcontexts,varietyand
profiling. Diversityisamainadvantageofnewlearningtechnologies.
Eachfeaturehassub-indicatorsandbenchmarks. Theeightfeaturesensurequalityandexcellence.
Thepersonallearningapproachisassumedbyallfeatures,butsomeissuesmightbeemphasizedas
indicatorsratherthanaspectsofquality. Aqualitymodelshouldnotcontainunnecessarydetails,but
itshouldembraceasetofcharacteristics[35]. Additionalindicatorscanbeconsideredbyuniversities
inembracingMOOCsintheircourseofferings,inmakingadifference,andcontributingtoinnovative
learningarenas:
‚ Allowspossibilitiesforchoice-basedlearning
‚ Fostersownership
‚ Fostersflexibility
‚ Embracesandallowsrecognitionandvalidation
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3.2. Grading
BillingtonandFronmueller[34]arguedthatbecauseMOOCsenrolllargenumbersoflearners,the
gradingandevaluatingofstudents’assignmentsareimportantconsiderations. Therefore,identifying
learners and their secure enrollment in a MOOC should be ensured. Regarding assessment and
evaluation,thereisastrongneedforpeerreviews,committees,andethicalprocedures. AsMOOCsare
freeofchargeandanyonewhowantscanenroll,thereareaccordingtoZimmermanessentialneedsfor
asecurewaytocompletetasksandgaintheverificationofprogramsandcourses[38]. Inthisrespect,
securityandaccessplaysignificantrolesintheassessmentandevaluationofonlinelearning.
3.3. Cheating
AnyonecanparticipateinaMOOCbyregisteringinit. AccordingtoBillingtonandFronmeller,
becausetherearenoprerequisites,therearenosecurewaystoverifytheparticipantswhocomplete
and submit assignments [34]. One way to overcome this potential drawback is to offer a Verified
Certificate,whichCourserastarted. Nowmostcourseprovidersofferthiscertificateforafee. When
theyenroll,apictureoftheirfaceistakenbyawebcam. Eachtimeanassignmentissubmitted,aphoto
isagaintakentoverifythestudent’sidentity. However, thereisnosecurityyettodeterminewho
actuallywritestheassignments. However,onenrolmentstudentshavetoconfirmthattheyagreewith
thecourseprovider’sconditions.
3.4. CourseCredits
AccordingtoBillingtonandFronmeller[34],atpresent,mostuniversitiesdonotgivecreditsfor
completedMOOCs. MOOClearnersusuallyobtainacertificateshowingthattheyhaveparticipated
inthecourse[39]. AccordingtoLedeman[40],TheAmericanCouncilonEducation(ACE)reviewed
fiveMOOCcoursesfortheircreditworthiness. Ifthecoursesmetthedesiredstandards,theywere
deemedworthyofaccreditation. Pope[40]reportedthatCoursera,oneofthelargestMOOCproviders,
announcedthatseveral(10)universitiesagreedtoutilizeMOOCsbothonlineandoncampus,which
indicatedaninterestingandpromisingsolution. However,academicsinprestigiousuniversitieshave
raisedsignificantconcernsabouttheaccreditationofMOOCs[34,41].
3.5. InteractionswithOtherLearnersandwiththeMaterials
ThelargeenrollmentsinMOOCspresentseriouschallengestohigh-qualityinteractionsbetween
instructors and learners [42,43]. Zimmerman [38] argued that the quality of interactions between
learnersandofthelearnerandthematerialdependsonthesophisticationofthelearningplatformused.
Theresultsshowedthatinteractionissuescouldbeovercomethroughlearningdesignsandthrough
defininglearningoutcomesandassessments[38,44]. However,asBillingtonandFronmueller[34]
emphasized, MOOCs present far greater challenges to high-quality interaction compared to other
deliverymethods.
3.6. Prerequisites
MOOCs generally do not require prerequisites. In the future, if and when course credits are
developed,therewillmostprobablybeprerequisites[34]. However,itisbecomingmoreandmore
commonthatcourseprovidersrequireprerequisites. Itisoftenthenlefttothesinglelearnertodecide
ifheorshehastheprerequisitesornot,whichisinlinewiththepedagogicalconceptthatlearners
shouldcontrolandorchestratetheirlearning[35,36].
Based on the concerns raised by Billington and Fronmeller [34], the following will focus
on the findings of this literature review and the concepts of lifelong learning and continuous
professionaldevelopment,innovation,transformationofthehighereducationallandscape,validation
andrecognition,andbusinessmodels.
Educ.Sci.2016,6,25 8of13
3.7. LifelongLearningandContinuousProfessionalDevelopment
TheliteraturereviewsclearlyshowedthatMOOCsfulfillthemissionoflifelonglearningand
continuousprofessionaldevelopment. However,questionsremainbecauseoftheplethoraofbusiness
models, such as MOOCs for university branding, MOOCs for the common good and democracy,
MOOCsaspartofordinaryofferings,andMOOCsforlearning. Probablythemosturgentquestions,
asWitthausetal.[21]emphasized,concernrecognitionandvalidation.
3.8. MOOCsPromotetheValidationandRecognitionofPriorandInformalLearning
AsWitthausetal. arguesthatthemosturgentquestiononMOOCs,theyreportedskepticism
aboutthedifficultyofvalidatingandrecognizingMOOCs[21]. However,manyefficientmethods
could be developed. In addition, open attitudes towards MOOCs should be developed among
universities globally, such as the OpenupEd Consortium by EADTU who recognized MOOCs as
learningexperiences[37]. OtherexamplesarethatGeorgiaTechnologyUniversityhaslongrecognized
thecreditworthinessofMOOCs. AnotherinitiativebyaNorwegianuniversity,creditswereawarded
forsomeoftheirMOOCs. EvenOpenUniversityinUK,incollaborationwithFutureLearn,announced
inspring2016thattheyoffercreditsfortheirMOOCs.
BillingtonandFontmueller[34]alsoprovidedexamplesinwhichstudentswouldcompletethe
course work online and then make an appointment with the university professors to take a test,
presentapaper,orperformvariousactivitiesassignedbytheMOOC.Theuniversityprobablywould
chargeafeeforthestudenttotakeproctoredexamsoncampus(proctoredinasecureonlineprocess,
or physically proctored). In this way, the grade would be posted to the student’s transcript and
wouldbeusedtocompleteanon-campusdegreeortotransfertoanotherdegree-grantinginstitution.
Furthermore, universities might see the value in students taking the course without consuming
campusresources.
3.9.MOOCsasFacilitatorsandChangeAgentstoPromoteInnovationandtheTransitiontoOpenOnlineLearning
ThesystematicliteraturereviewrevealobviouslythatMOOCsservetoalargeextendasfacilitators
andchangeagentsinthetransitionfromtraditionalcampuseducationtoopenonlinelearningarenas
because they increase access, equity, and lifelong learning for all individuals [12]. Emanuel [45]
emphasizedthatMOOCsconstituteaphenomenonthatrequireshighereducationandsocietytotake
intoaccountbecausetheychallengethetraditionalorganizationoftheuniversitycampusanditslinear
learningpathways.
Ferguson,Sharples,andBeale[46]arguedthatforopenonlinelearningtoflourishby2030,the
waysinwhichcurrentvisionsofMOOCsmaybecomereality,pedagogy,technology,andthewider
educationalenvironmentwouldneedtohavechanged. Ashasbeenemphasizedearlierintheresults
severalcriticalissuesandchallengesareaddressedandneedtobeconsideredandsolved. Onestrategy
tofacilitatesuchchangecouldbetoadoptbusinessmodelsofhighereducationtoopenupeducation.
Theystatedthatby2030,thesystemsthatwillhavedevelopedfromMOOCswouldhavemetthe
needsofsocietiesbyeducatingmillionsofdigitalcitizensworldwide. Hence,learningsystemswill
haveopenedaccesstoeducationandenabledpeoplefromallovertheworldtoenjoythebenefitsof
learning. Thus,MOOCproviders,policymakers,andeducatorsneedtoproceedwiththisvisionin
mindtofacilitateandsupportthisvision. ForMOOCstomakeadifference[46],theymust
...truly open up education while enhancing learning, the pedagogies in place by 2030
musttakeintoaccountentirelynewgroupsoflearnersaswellasvastlynewrolesthat
will emerge for educators. Such pedagogical approaches must also utilize innovative
approachestothedesignofthatlearning.
Embracingthisapproachrequirestheadvancementofinnovativepedagogy,learningmodes,and
technology,aswellasincreaseddigitization.
Educ.Sci.2016,6,25 9of13
A few pundits according to Billington and Fronweller believe that university closures will
occur [34]. However, they also confess that many counterforces make the university campus an
attractivealternativeforstudents[34]. Forexample,aresidentialcollegeeducationhasvaluablesocial
aspectsthatcannotbereplicatedthroughonlineeducation,suchassportsteams,socialinteraction,
andthefirstexperienceoflivingawayfromhome. Studentshaveface-to-facecommunicationwith
facultywhoarecontentexperts. Anotherreasonforthemaintenanceofphysicalcampusesisthat
mostMOOCsareshortcourses, notdegreeprograms. MOOCsservelearnerswhodesiretolearn
aboutspecifictopicsandthosewhorequirecontinuousprofessionaldevelopment,aswellaslifelong
learners. Inaddition,MOOCsdonotattractjustyounglearners;theaverageageofMOOClearnersis
morethan40years.
MOOCs may become useful on campus as providers of online content that supplements or
complementstraditionalfaculty-ledclasses. AgoodpresentationonaMOOCmayprovideabetter
learning experience for students than an in-class faculty lecture could. The MOOC lecture could
completelyreplacethein-classlecture,allowingmoreclasstimefordiscussion,problemsolving,and
otherin-classlearningactivities. Inconventionalcourses,studentsareaskedtopurchaseatextbook,
whereasinthefuture,studentscouldbeaskedtoregisterinaMOOC.Thisblendedorhybridcourse
designwoulduseMOOClecturesinsteadofvideolecturesgivenbyfaculty.
3.10. MOOCsChangeBusinessModelsforUniversities
Thisscenarioonchangingbusinessmodelsissimilartothepreviousscenariooftheproctored
examsite;however,proctoredon-campusexamtestingwouldnotbenecessary. MOOCproviders
woulddevelopsecureprocedurestoovercomethecheatingproblem,andthentheywouldbeableto
providelettergradesdirectlytoauniversity,whichwouldcollectafeefromeitherthestudentorthe
MOOCprovider. Thus,anofficialtranscriptcouldbeobtainedfromanaccrediteduniversity. MOOC
providershavealreadybeengrantedopportunitiestoprovideremediationcoursesorcoursesthatare
oversubscribed[38].
Thisscenarioisprobablythemostchallengingforexistinguniversitiesbecauseiteliminatesthe
keystotheirsurvival: accreditationandtheabilitytoassigngradesandawarddegrees. Thisscenario
couldbecomereality,butitmaytakesometimefortheaccreditingagenciestodeterminethestandards
by which accreditation would occur at the degree-granting level. The Institute for Prospective
TechnologicalStudies(IPTS)[21]predictedthateducationisbecominglessrectified,moreunbundled
andmoreflexible,andthefuturein-houseactivitiesofuniversitieswillbeverydifferentwithregardto
content,studyguidance,libraries,examinations,andsoon. TheIPTSforesawthatthemostimportant
roleforuniversitieswillbetoset,oversee,andgradeexaminations,whichwillbetheonlyauthoritative
factorsthatdistinguishuniversitiesfromothereducationalproviders.
DuetotherationalesforuniversitiestoofferMOOCsdifferentbusinessmodelscanbeapplied.
Someofthemostcommonrationalesaremarketingandbandingfortheownuniversityandresearch.
MOOCsforcommongood,educationforallandincreaseddemocracy,andrecruitmentsofstudentsto
fullprogramcourses.
4. Discussion
“MOOCsappeartobeheretostay”[34](p. 41). However,theirroleinhighereducationisstill
evolving. The pressure to lower college tuition costs is real, yet few viable alternatives to reduce
costs exist in the current business model. MOOCs may be the answer. Although faculty will be
highly resistant to anything that disrupts the current university education model, the cost factor
willbeasignificantdrivingforce. MOOCshavebecomeakeytoolinpromotingcompetency-based
education. Recentchangesinfederalpolicynotonlypermitbutalsoencourageprogramsthatdeploy
competency-basedapplicationsforfederalstudentaid[39],whichmaypromotetheusageofMOOCs.
As credit hours and seat time become separate from both the learning process and the eventual
Educ.Sci.2016,6,25 10of13
awardingofadegree,MOOCscouldbecomeaprincipalpedagogicaltoolusedtopreparestudentsfor
competencytesting.
MOOCsaddanotherfacettotheexistingresearchononlinelearning. Asanothertypeofrichdata
source,theyprovideawealthofinformationforstudiesononlinelearning[18]. Pedagogicalconcerns,
bothrecentandestablished,areyetanotheravenueofexploration. Asanextensionoftheexisting
research,MOOCsallowresearchersanotherwaytostudystudents’efforts,accomplishments,and
behavior. Thisisawelcomeopportunityandonethattheexistingonlinelearningresearchcommunity
shouldcontinuetoembraceanddevelop.
Furthermore,itisobviousthatMOOCswillcontinuetobechangeagentsandfacilitatorsinthe
transitiontoopenonlinelearningandtoopened-upeducationinaccordancewiththestatementsof
theEuropeanCommissionandUNESCOonequity,access,democracy,andlifelonglearning,although
therearechallengestoface. Astheeducationallandscapechangesandeducationbecomeslessand
lesshomogenous,flexible,newscenarioswillform,suchasthosedescribedbelow.
Billington and Frontmueller [34] emphasized that MOOCs may become useful in campus
education as providers of high quality online content that supplement or complement traditional
faculty-ledclasses. ThepresentationinaMOOCmayprovideabetterlearningexperienceforstudents
thananin-classlecturewould. TheMOOClecturecouldevencompletelyreplacethein-classlecture,
asintheflippedlearningclassroommodel, allowingmoreface-to-faceinteractionsfordiscussion,
problemsolving,andotherlearningactivities. Thisdesignissimilartohybridandblendedlearning
approaches,aswellastheapproachwiththeflippedclassroominwhichMOOClecturesareused
insteadofin-housevideolectures. Inconventionalcourses,studentsareaskedtopurchasetheirbooks
andhandouts. MOOCscan,asOERsalreadydo,serveasvaluablelearningresources. Studentsmay
beaskedtosignupforaMOOCduringthecourseorasanintroductiontoacourse.
IfMOOCsreceiveuniversityaccreditation,learnerscouldgainboththerecognitionandvalidation
oftheirlearningthroughsuchcourses. ThisscenariowouldbeviableifMOOCswereabletoovercome
somecriticalissuesandconcerns,as,forexample,somewhichhavebeendiscussedhere. IfMOOCs
weredevelopedaccordingtotheclassicthree-credithourstandard,thenuniversitieswouldseethe
valueinstudentstakingthecoursewithoutconsumingcampusresources. Universitieswouldthen
approve the course as equivalent to an on-campus course but charge a fee for the student to take
proctored exams on campus. The grade would be posted to the student’s transcript and used to
complete an on-campus degree or to transfer to another degree-granting institution. The student
wouldcompletethecourseworkonlineandthenmakeanappointmentwiththeprofessoroncampus
totakeatest,presentapaper,orperformthevariousactivitiesassignedbytheMOOC.
5. Conclusions
This systemic content literature review aimed to reveal the merits of MOOCs as agents of
innovation and change in higher education. The findings showed that MOOCs are key in the
transformationofeducation,althoughthereareconcernsahead. Asystematicliteraturereviewwas
conductedtosupportthepremisethatMOOCsarevaluedbecausetheyarepedagogicallyinnovative
agentsofchangeandfacilitatorsofthetransitiontoopeningupeducationalpolicy,strategies,and
actionplanstoenhanceandassurequality.
The findings of the literature review conducted in this literature research study indicate that
MOOCs can boost innovation in higher educational practices because of their merits of valuable
learning, pedagogical innovation, and as facilitators and change agents for implementation of
innovations for teaching and learning. In addition, as innovative learning arenas, MOOCs foster
possibilitiesforchoice-basedlearning,ownership,flexibility,recognition,andvalidation,whichare
essentialforthequalityofpracticesinhighereducation.
Thisresearchstudyalsorevealedtheimportanceofconsideringthechallenges,whichhavebeen
elaborated under the themes of issues related to the quality of MOOCs and, ethical dilemmas as
assessment,evaluation,gradingandcheating,coursecredits,interactionswithotherlearnersandthe