ERIC EJ1114844: Haunted by Math: The Impact of Policy and Practice on Students with Math Learning Disabilities in the Transition to Post-Secondary Education in Mumbai, India

2016·0.39 MB·English

by  ERIC

Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 75

Haunted by Math: The Impact of Policy and Practice
on Students with Math Learning Disabilities
in the Transition to Post-Secondary Education in Mumbai, India

Melinda (Mindy) S. Eichhorn
Gordon College

Abstract
Only six states in India currently identify learning disabilities as a category of disability. This article
highlights the challenges students with math learning disabilities face in their transition from secondary
school to higher secondary education and Bachelor of Commerce degree programs in the state of
Maharashtra. While the current educational policy aims to help students with learning disabilities
participate in the general education curriculum and pass the 10th standard secondary exam, the
implementation of curricular modifications has repercussions in post-secondary settings when students
lack the math content knowledge for a required math course in their Bachelor’s degree program. This
qualitative study highlights the transitional experiences of secondary and post-secondary individuals with
math learning disabilities in Mumbai through interviews with students, college administrators, and
lecturers; and a document review of Maharashtra’s special education policies. The results suggest that
current special education policies and college practices in Mumbai do not prepare students with math
learning disabilities with the math knowledge that they need to succeed in post-secondary mathematics
courses. Current higher secondary and post-secondary interventions in Mumbai are reviewed and
implications for policy and practice for all levels of education are discussed.

Keywords
Math learning disability; dyscalculia; intervention; higher secondary; post-secondary; transition; primary
math; elementary education; policy; India

Introduction had to take the mandatory mathematical and
From a young age, Vinod (pseudonym) was statistical techniques course. Vinod recounts his
interested in pursuing a career in business. transitional experience:
Before taking his 10th standard exam to complete It was a shock for me to take math
secondary school, he underwent an educational again. I was weak in math to begin with,
assessment and was diagnosed with learning and then it was like I wasn’t practicing
disabilities (LD). He majored in commerce at a hard enough or something. People said that
______________________________
junior college which did not require a
Corresponding Author:
mathematics course (11th and 12th standard) in
Melinda (Mindy) S. Eichhorn, Department of Education,
Mumbai. After completing junior college, Vinod Gordon College, 255 Grapevine Road, Wenham, MA 01984
enrolled for a bachelor’s degree in commerce at Email: [email protected]
a Mumbai degree college. In the first year, he

Global Education Review is a publication of The School of Education at Mercy College, New York. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License, permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is
properly cited. Citation: Eichhorn, Melinda Sue (2016). Haunted by math: The impact of policy and practice on students with math learning disabilities in

the transition to post-secondary education in Mumbai, India.. Global Education Review, 3(3). 75-93
76 Global Education Review 3(3)
I wasn’t studying and I was not paying and their post-secondary education options due
attention. But I was. It was frustrating. I to their math proficiency in secondary school.
started not to care. I left it (math); I was like This qualitative study used interviews,
“screw it.” You are stressed when you are observations, and a document analysis to
behind. No one wants to be behind everyone examine the Indian education system’s lack of
else. options for students who may want to pursue a
(Vinod, personal communication, April degree in commerce, but are unable to do so
25, 2013) because of counsel from secondary counselors or
college requirements. Because only one type
Vinod failed the mathematical and
math course is offered as a part of the degree
statistical techniques course and eventually
program, students lack options and may have to
moved to another degree college (which does not
take extra private classes to keep up with their
require a math course) to pursue a Bachelor of
peers.
Arts degree because his previous college only
This study originated from a desire of the
offered commerce and science degrees. Once he
Maharashtra Dyslexia Association (MDA) to
finished his Bachelor of Arts degree, he went to
correct the discrepancy between students with
London to study media. He currently lives in
MLD and their typically achieving peers in post-
Mumbai and is a general manager of products
secondary education, because many students in
and marketing for a multi-channel
their network were experiencing severe
entertainment network on YouTube (Vinod,
difficulties in mathematics during their post-
personal communication, April 25, 2013).
secondary transition, especially in Bachelor of
Vinod’s case is similar that of other
Commerce degree programs. To this end, this
students with learning disabilities in post-
study addresses two main questions:
secondary education in Mumbai. Students with
 What accommodations and supports do
math learning disabilities (MLD) reported
students with MLD use during their
having to study harder and longer than their
secondary and post-secondary education?
peers, just to scrape by, or as in Vinod’s case,
 How do college math policies and
taking another path in order to reach their goal.
procedures affect students with MLD?
If students with MLD have fallen behind
in mathematics in primary school, and then Overall, very little is known about students
discover they have a learning disability when with MLD in India. Only one peer-reviewed
they enter secondary school, what are the article has examined the identification and
repercussions they face in mathematics as they classification of MLD in India, and it focused on
transition to post-secondary education and into primary students in the city of Mysore (Ramaa &
a career? Students with MLD eventually do Gowramma, 2002). There are a few other
learn basic math procedures in primary school, studies on learning disabilities in India, but
but are one to several years behind their these have focused on three types of learning
typically achieving peers (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, disabilities (reading, writing, and math) together
& Bailey, 2012). If this gap widens during (Mogasale et al., 2012; Kulkarni et al., 2006;
secondary school, what are the implications for Karande et al., 2007, 2009). Although, in
students who opt out of math courses for 2-4 general, awareness of learning disabilities has
years, who must take required math courses in increased in India over the past decade, there is
post-secondary education? still a general lack of awareness in schools
This exploratory study is a first step in (Karande, Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011;
beginning to understand the way special Karande, Mahajan, & Kulkarni, 2009). Some
education policy, and the current education studies have recommended increased training
system in India, impacts students’ math abilities for primary school teachers, early screening
Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 77

tools, and more remedial education and special discrepancy (in some cases, more than two
educators in primary and secondary schools standard deviations) between a student’s
(Karande, Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011; achievement in math and his/her age, schooling,
Karande, Doshi, Thadhani & Sholapurwala, and level of intelligence (IQ), and significant
2013; Unni, 2012). Other studies have examined impairment in real-life activities that require
the lack of uniformity for learning disability math (APA, 2004; Geary, 2011; Sparks & Lovett,
diagnosis, and attempted to create alternative, 2009; Allsopp, 2008). In the DSM-5, the IQ-
simplified procedures, especially for students in achievement discrepancy requirement was
vernacular-medium schools (Mogasale et al., eliminated and now the criteria for MLD
2012, Ramaa & Gowramma, 2002). However, involves evidence of symptom persistence for at
most researchers do not take an in-depth look at least six months, despite extra help or targeted
math learning disabilities and none have instruction (Tannock, 2014).
examined the impact of policy and transitional The DSM-5 acknowledges that learning
issues in post-secondary education. Overall, the deficits in mathematics are sometimes referred
peer-reviewed literature on students with math to as “dyscalculia” internationally (American
learning disabilities in India is sparse. Psychiatric Association, 2013a). Although the
term, “dyscalculia,” is used extensively in India,
Background the term “math learning disability” will be used
Defining Math Learning Disabilities throughout this paper in order to better reflect a
Students and adults with mathematics learning wide range of difficulties in mathematics, rather
disability (MLD) are individuals that perform at than focusing on calculation and arithmetic. In
a level substantially below their peers in the literature, these terms are occasionally used
mathematics, whose poor performance cannot synonymously (Butterworth, 2002; Williams,
be explained by any deficit in vision, speech, 2012).
hearing, or intelligence. It is, in a sense, In the field of MLD, there is disagreement
“unexpected underachievement” (Fletcher, as to whether MLD is caused solely by a core
Lyon, Fuchs, & Barnes, 2007, p. 27; American deficit in number sense/numerosity, as
Psychiatric Association, 2013a, 2013b). Butterworth (2005) posits, or due to a more
Learning disabilities, which can occur in the general deficit in working memory or spatial
areas of reading, mathematics, and/or written cognition, which is the view of Geary et al.
expression, contribute to students experiencing (2004) (as cited by Pennington, 2009). These
low self-esteem due to their poor academic two theoretical perspectives or orientations are
performance and negative school reports still under debate, which make it difficult to
(Fletcher et al., 2007; Gibson & Kendall, 2010; define MLD (Fletcher et al., 2007).
Lahane et al., 2013). Overall, children with MLD typically have
Currently, there is no universal definition a low start point on math achievement tests and
of math learning disability (MLD) (Mazzocco & show slow growth as compared to typically
Myers, 2003). Although there has been almost a achieving peers (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, &
century of efforts, problems with the definition Bailey, 2012). Lewis (2014) posits that students
of math “learning disability” still exist. There is with MLD process or manipulate numbers in an
still a lack of understanding as to which criteria atypical way due to differences in cognitive
classify MLD so that it is reliable and valid abilities. If these early math deficits, or
(Fletcher et al., 2007). According to the fourth differences, are remediated immediately, then
edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual students may not fall further behind their peers
of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), the definition of in math skills (Desoete et al., 2009). Addressing
math learning disability was a severe slow growth usually requires several
78 Global Education Review 3(3)
simultaneous types of remedial and instructional of Cognitive Abilities or the Wechsler
interventions (Geary, Hoard, Nugent, & Bailey, Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC) are
2012). Interventions may be particularly culturally appropriate for Indian students who
effective if they are early (Dowker, 2005; Nelson are studying in English-medium schools (Al-
& Sheridan, 2011). Yagon et al., 2013). The WISC does have an
Indian adaptation test available for IQ, yet there
Math Learning Disabilities in India are no standardized measures for academic
The national government of India does not achievement (M. Khan, personal
currently recognize “learning disability” or any communication, March 6, 2014). At this point,
type of mathematics learning disorder, so there centers like the Maharashtra Dyslexia
are no uniform guidelines for assessment, Association (MDA) use the academic
diagnosis, or certification. There is also extreme achievement battery standardized on the U.S.
lack of awareness of learning disabilities among and U.K. populations, but place emphasis on
teachers (Unni, 2012). The educational boards in “error analysis and give a qualitative report with
only six states consider learning disability (LD) rationales for diagnosis and accommodations”
as a category of disability (Goa, Gujarat, (M. Khan, personal communication, March 6,
Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, and Tamil 2014). The LD clinics at Nair and Sion hospitals
Nadu) (Al-Yagon et al., 2013). Currently, also use tests that are not standardized for the
students in Mumbai, Maharashtra receive a Indian population, while KEM hospital uses
learning disability certificate from one of three curriculum-based tests for students in English-
government hospitals (Nair, Sion, and King medium schools (Al-Yagon et al., 2013). More
Edward Memorial), or a recognized testing research needs to be done in order to develop
center, such as the Maharashtra Dyslexia curriculum-based tests for diagnosis of learning
Association (MDA). Students are typically disabilities in India, especially in the 21 official
diagnosed as having a learning disability based Indian languages, apart from English (Al-Yagon
on the IQ-achievement discrepancy model et al., 2013).
(DSM-IV), but organizations in India are moving India, as a nation, is incredibly diverse.
towards the DSM-5 criteria (M. Khan, personal With 28 states and 7 union territories, there are
communication, September 30, 2014). The 30 languages spoken by more than one million
terms “dyslexia,” “dysgraphia,” and “dyscalculia” people. There are additional languages and
are used synonymously for reading, writing, and dialects as well. Overall, it is very difficult to
math learning disabilities on the LD certificates standardize a uniform assessment of learning,
in Maharashtra. let alone of learning disabilities in India (Unni,
The occurrence of MLD in India is 2012).
believed to be 5.5% to 6% among primary school In India, education is a responsibility of
children (Ramaa & Gowramma, 2002; Karande both the national and state governments. The
& Kulkarni, 2005). Due to the lack of uniformity national government performs an advisory role,
in diagnosing learning disabilities, it is difficult but allows states the freedom to adapt or adopt
to present an accurate picture of the number of policy and curricula, since the context varies
students with MLD in the country. There are no considerably from state to state (M. Jain & K.
standardized measures available for students Sharma, personal communication, July 5, 2013).
who study in vernacular-medium schools (where Elementary education in India is defined by the
the language of instruction is not English) (Al- Ministry of Human Resource Development
Yagon, et al., 2013). Also, there is a debate as to (MHRD) as schooling up to 8th standard, or ages
whether standardized tests used in Western 6–14 (MHRD Department of School Education
countries, such as the Woodcock-Johnson Tests and Literacy, 2015a). Secondary education is for
Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 79

students between the ages of 14 and 18, which students transition to junior college (11th and 12th
corresponds to 9th–12th standard (MHRD standard) and degree college (Karande, 2008, p.
Department of School Education and Literacy, 75). Additionally, there is low awareness among
2015b). In the state of Maharashtra, however, teachers and parents, and many students in
elementary education is further divided into Mumbai are not diagnosed with MLD or other
primary (1st–5th standards) and upper primary learning disabilities until 8th standard or later
(6th– 8th standard). Secondary education (Karande & Gogtay, 2010). By this time, it is
includes 9th and 10th standards, while 11th and difficult to remediate the many misconceptions
12th standards are known as higher secondary or that students have formed about mathematical
senior secondary school (Maharashtra ideas.
Prathamik Shikshan Parishad, 2015). Higher In higher secondary education (11th and
secondary schools are often called junior 12th standard) math is an elective subject.
colleges in Mumbai. Since this study took place Students in both Higher Secondary Certificate
in Maharashtra, I will refer to higher secondary (HSC – Maharashtra state board) and Indian
education as coursework following 10th standard School Certificate (ISC) junior colleges can opt
and post-secondary education as all education out of mathematics. However, once students
following the 12th standard. finish junior college (12th standard) and they
Each school and college in India is pursue a Bachelor’s degree in post-secondary
associated with a Board, or curriculum, such as educational institutions (degree colleges),
the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education students may need to take a required math
(ICSE) Board, the Central Board of Secondary course, depending on their degree program. So
Education (CBSE) Board, or a state Board. In although there is a (non-math) course
Maharashtra, the state Board is the Secondary substitution, such as Secretarial Practice in HSC-
School Certificate (SSC) Board for primary and affiliated junior colleges, which serves as a
secondary schools, while the higher secondary program accommodation, students may still
Board is the Higher Secondary Certificate (HSC) have to take a math course later on in their
Board. Depending on the Board, students with academic career (Madaus, 2010). For instance, if
MLD in Mumbai are eligible for “provisions,” or a student pursues a Bachelor’s degree in
accommodations, ranging from extra time to Commerce, a math course is required in the first
dropping math after 8th standard (Karande, year.
2008; Karande & Gogtay, 2010; Kulkarni, et al., Students with MLD in India may enter
2006; MDA, 2014). These provisions were secondary school without the foundation
originally intended to function as a “corrective required for higher-level mathematics, including
lens” to help students with LD continue in conceptual understanding of math, mastery and
regular education (Karande, n.d., slide 28; automaticity of basic math facts and skills, and
Karande, Sholapurwala, & Kulkarni, 2011, p. problem-solving strategies. Yet, math lecturers
516). Although these provisions, or in higher secondary education assume and
accommodations, were envisioned to “level the expect that students have already acquired the
play(ing) field” in secondary school, they can needed foundational knowledge and skills in
actually lead to gaps in math content knowledge previous classes.
and set students up for failure when these
80 Global Education Review 3(3)

Secondary school (up to 10th standard)
SSC board ICSE board IGCSEboard
CBSE board
(General or lower-level (option to drop math after (core or extended level
(no alternative options)
math) 8thstandard) math)
Higher Secondary/Junior college (11th and 12th standard)
Commerce
Arts Science
(Math or Secretarial Practice)
Post-secondary/Degree college (Bachelor's degree)
Commerce
(Mathematical and Arts Science Management Massmedia Law Pharmacy Medicine Engineering Architecture
Statistical
Techniques)

Figure 1. Pathway to post-secondary education for students in Mumbai, Maharashtra. The students
in this sample studied in SSC board and ICSE board schools in secondary school. This study focused on
students with learning disabilities that had entered or completed the Commerce stream and their math
course options.

Mathematics and the Transition to Post- problem solving. According to Ramaa &
Secondary Education Gowramma (2002), nearly half of the Indian
Pursuing higher education improves a student’s students with MLD also have a learning
chances of a higher income, opportunities for disability in reading and writing. Although
career advancement, achieving status, and students with math learning disabilities in India
becoming part of a life-long professional have a complex profile of strengths and
network (Wehman & Yasuda, 2005). However, challenges, their difficulties in math may limit
students with MLD are at a great disadvantage their options and opportunities within
in pursuing post-secondary education and job postsecondary education (Pennini, 2006). On
options since they typically lag behind their the whole, very little is known about the
peers in conceptual and procedural transitional experience of post-secondary
understanding of math knowledge, skills, and
Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 81

students with MLD in India. This study begins to this aspect of their identity, based on how they
address this knowledge gap. imagine others will perceive them (Schifter,
2015). However, all human differences and
Theoretical/Conceptual diversity is normal, including the continuum of
math abilities (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, &
Framework
Gallagher, 2011). Yet, general educational
The theoretical framework of critical theory in
systems, especially those in India, are inflexible
education was used to reflect on the way policies
(Hehir, 2015b). Instead of questioning the
and practice affect students with MLD, and can
norms of educational systems, students’
actually disempower them, as well contributing
disabilities, or differences, are seen as the
to marginalization and exclusion (Arnesen,
problem. So often, the “‘problem’ of disability”
Mietola, Lahelma, 2007; Erevelles, 2005; Peters,
is seen as being the student’s fault, instead of
2005). Specifically, this article used insights
questioning why institutional norms and
from the intersection of critical pedagogy and
classroom practices have not been changed
disability studies in education to analyze the
(Hehir, 2015a, p. 181).
ways Indian educational policies and practices
In this article, therefore, the Indian
deny access to math content for people of
education policy and college practices toward
various abilities (Gabel, 2002). For instance, if
students with learning disabilities are viewed as
education is viewed as a “practice of access,”
inflexible systems which do not allow for
then all students should have access to the
diversity of mathematical abilities. Each finding
curriculum and learning opportunities (Baglieri,
is examined in light of this critical theory
Valle, Connor, & Gallagher, 2011, p. 272).
framework, emphasizing the ways students with
However, pulling students out of the regular
MLD are denied access to mathematical content
classroom, tracking, and offering certain
through current policy and practice.
accommodations, will continue to separate

them, mark them as different or disabled, and
Methodology
can limit their access to the curriculum and
opportunities to learn (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & Setting and Participants
Gallagher, 2011). This pattern of distinctions This study took place in Mumbai (formerly
creates systems and norms that include or Bombay), India’s most populous city between
exclude students, based on their ability April 2012 and November 2013. Mumbai is
(Popkewitz, 2001). located in the state of Maharashtra. The
Additionally, current methods of approximate population of the Mumbai
identifying students as having a learning Metropolitan Region (comprising Mumbai, Navi
“disability” are problematic. The eligibility Mumbai, Thane, Vasai-Virar, Bhiwandi and
criteria make judgements between what is Panvel) is nearly 21 million, according to the
“normal” and what is a learning “disability,” and 2011 census (Press Information Bureau,
often categorizes students - attaching a stigma to Government of India, 2011). The students in this
their identity (Baglieri, Valle, Connor, & study are from predominately middle and
Gallagher, 2011; Goffman, 1963). Because upper-middle class areas of Mumbai.
learning disabilities are an invisible disability, Five secondary students were selected for
students may reject accommodations to conceal in-depth case studies (one male in 8th standard,
their label and avoid the stigma, which Goffman two females and one male in 9th standard, and
(1963) calls “information control” (p. 91). one 10th standard female). All of these students
Students may or may not be willing to embrace had been tested for LD at MDA, so they were
82 Global Education Review 3(3)
familiar with the organization. These students level math as early as possible (sometimes after
were chosen based on their ability to express 7th standard) (A. Kumar, personal
themselves verbally and the parents’ willingness communication, November 27, 2012). Yet,
to be involved in this research. college lecturers (both at the junior college and
Six adults (five male and one female) with degree college level) recommend that all
learning disabilities with a Bachelor’s degree students take math throughout their academic
were also interviewed. They had received career (K. Kapoor, personal communication,
remedial or testing services at MDA or January 21, 2013). Students who have been
responded to our requests for participants counseled to drop math or take a lower level
through the Indian Psychological Association math by secondary school counselors may not
list-serv. Pseudonyms have been used for all know all of the ramifications of their choice
participants with learning disabilities. according to Mr. Kumar: “Since we cannot
Permission was obtained to interview change the syllabus, we can change the way we
college math lecturers and administrators where counsel students about math courses, especially
MDA had some prior affiliation or personal secondary school counselors” (A. Kumar,
connection. Other prominent colleges in south personal communication, November 27, 2012).
Mumbai and in the suburbs that offered degrees In other words, educational professionals can
in Commerce were contacted. All college names advise students to make informed choices about
and lecturer names are pseudonyms. dropping math or continuing their study of
Semi-structured interviews were mathematics, based on their desired educational
conducted with college lecturers and and career path, but don’t.
administrators (n = 18) in seven colleges. Once students complete secondary school
Additional lecturers (n = 28) in four of the seven (10th standard), they can enter higher secondary
colleges were also asked to complete a survey studies by attending a junior college. The choice
(appended). The surveys gathered descriptive of stream (Arts, Commerce, or Science) is very
information about the lecturers and their views important to students in junior college, and can
of the transition experience. Six observations limit their future education and career options.
were conducted with an in math courses in two For example, students who enter the Arts stream
of the colleges using an observation protocol. A in junior college may only complete a Bachelor
document review was completed of government of Arts (B.A.) or a Bachelor’s in Mass media
resolution circulars in Maharashtra, which degree in degree college (M. Bose, personal
outline the exam accommodations and quotas communication, February 18, 2013).
that are required for students with learning Most junior colleges in Maharashtra are
disabilities, as well as college and university affiliated with the Higher Secondary
math syllabi from Maharashtra State Board of Certification Board (HSC). When secondary
Secondary and Higher Secondary Education students with MLD transition to a HSC junior
(MSBSHSE, Pune) and Mumbai University. college, they receive an accommodation of half
an hour extra time on each exam (two hours in
duration) and do not have to draw figures. If the
Results
student fails the exam, he/she gets “20 grace
Accommodations and Supports for
marks to pass the exam” (Government of
Students with MLD in Secondary and
Maharashtra Higher & Technical Educational
Post-Secondary Education
Department, 2004, p. 1). Grace marks are extra
Secondary school counselors have advised
points given to students who meet a certain
students with MLD to drop math or take lower-
criteria to help equalize their opportunity for
Haunted by math: MLD policy in Mumbai, India 83

success, as opposed to grading on a curve for all Thoma, 2008). Some students chose not to self-
students. Student with MLD can apply these disclose their learning disability to
grace marks to one subject, or spread them postsecondary faculty and do not avail the
across subjects. Students identified as having a provisions (Getzel, 2008).
MLD are not penalized for number reversals Post-college adults remarked that they felt
(Government of Maharashtra Higher & scared to ask lecturers for help during college.
Technical Educational Department, 2004). Some of these overcame their fears during
Degree colleges (for Bachelor’s and Master’s degree college due to strong self-determination
degrees) are affiliated with the University of skills, yet others reported feelings of being
Mumbai. The same accommodations listed for judged by lecturers and were afraid of what their
the junior colleges above are available at the peers might think if they found out they had
degree college level (MDA, 2014). learning disabilities. One lecturer mentioned
If students apply for the LD that students in his college were afraid to meet
accommodations in higher secondary and post- him for extra help during school hours:
secondary education, they have to take their Most students with LD do not disclose
exams in a separate room to receive extra time. their diagnosis. They get bullied. Other
Vinod did not want to seem different from his students are very strong and harsh towards
peers, so he did not ask for accommodations in students with LD. In fact, many students do
college for his learning disabilities: not want to meet me during school hours,
It is not always so easy to ask for help. for fear that their peers might see them
If you get provisions, then you have to take getting extra help.
your exam in a different room. You will be (A. Kumar, personal communication,
seated in the roll number order during the November 27, 2012)
exam. People will notice you aren’t there
Participants with MLD are also impacted
and they will ask you, “Why didn’t you give
by the level of support in their home and school
your exam?” “Where were you?” No one
environment. Students with MLD in this
was aware that I had a learning disability
sample, such as Vaibhav and Kunal, had access
in college.
to remedial education and private tutoring.
(Vinod, personal communication, April
Kunal reported how he passed the Mathematical
25, 2013)
and Statistical Techniques course:
If students have difficulty understanding I took Secretarial Practice (S.P.) in
the math concepts in junior college and degree junior college, so I had a gap of 2 years
college, most lecturers will offer extra classes. with no mathematics. Plus, I wasn’t really
However, these are open to all students and are comfortable with math in the first place.
not remedial classes. The lecturer might be able During my first year of B. Com., I had a
to give more attention to students, but he/she private tutor. He came to my house three
does not use alternative teaching methods to days a week and taught me for two hours.
explain the concepts. Only a few colleges in Then, he gave me homework and practice
south Mumbai offer special “dyslexia cells.” problems. For six days a week, I studied
These “cells,” or programs, are primarily for math. I had to work really hard at math. . .
support services for students with learning . . . if you dedicate your time, and study for
disabilities (A. Kumar, personal communication, three hours a day, you can easily get 18
November 27, 2012; R. Archarya, personal
communication, February 11, 2013; Getzel &
84 Global Education Review 3(3)
marks on a 50 mark paper (which is 36%, impaired students, and students with orthopedic
just enough for the passing rate of 35%). disorders and learning disabilities (dyslexia,
(Kunal, personal communication, March dysgraphia, and dyscalculia) (Maharashtra
13, 2013) Secondary and Higher Secondary State
Education Department, 2001). The 3% quota is
Kunal was solely focused on passing the
based on merit, irrespective of the disability (M.
class. Certain colleges, like Shri Ram, offer
Khan, personal communication, April 19, 2016).
special programs for students with learning
According to the syllabus for Standards 11 and
disabilities. Thus, students with MLD can be
12, college students only have three compulsory
further supported for post-secondary success
subjects: English, Environment Education, and
and their math abilities, depending on their
Health and Physical Education. Students can
environment.
then choose four other electives (42 electives are
However, many students with MLD have
listed in the syllabus) to complete the required
difficulty meeting post-secondary mathematics
coursework each year (Maharashtra State Board
demands. Students with MLD may have
of Secondary and Higher Secondary Education,
conceptual gaps in understanding, visual-spatial
2012).
deficits and/or difficulties with word problems.
However, at all of the colleges in this
Due to the hierarchical nature of mathematics,
sample, students must choose, as one of their
students with MLD are not prepared for post-
electives, either mathematics or Secretarial
secondary math demands if they have fallen
Practice (S.P.). S.P. requires no mathematical
behind their peers in primary and secondary
skill. The students need only to understand
school (Strawser & Miller, 2001). The
English (S.P. college lecturer, personal
government of Maharashtra and the Higher
communication, December 19, 2012). S.P. does
Secondary Certificate Board have attempted to
not serve as a mathematical subject option. It is
put some supports in place for students with
an entirely unrelated subject. In some colleges,
MLD in the post-secondary setting, such as
students have an open choice between Math and
curricular accommodations and exam
S.P.; yet other colleges have a cut-off score
concessions. If the current accommodations are
requirement in order to have access to math
viewed through the lens of critical theory, they
courses and all other students must take S.P.
are performing an exclusionary role. In other
At Ambedkar College, only students who
words, students with MLD are excluded from
have scored 87-88% on their 10th standard exam
math content and pre-requisite skills in
are eligible to enroll in 11th and 12th standard
secondary school, such as algebra, which are
math classes. All other students take Secretarial
required for a degree college math course. The
Practice (S.P.) at Ambedkar (L. Ghose, personal
current policies for students with MLD are a
communication, February 6, 2013). The case is
quick fix, but ignore the root of the problem -
the same at Singh College, except the acceptable
gaps in math content and foundational skills.
passing percentage on the 10th standard exam is

a little lower at 83% (or 125 out of 150). Only
College Policies and Procedures in
students who qualify for math based on their
Mathematics and the Effect on Students
10th standard exam score in math are eligible to
with MLD
enroll in math in 11th standard (V. Jha, personal
In junior colleges, there is a 3% quota (or
communication, February 6, 2013). At St.
reservation) for admission to 11th standard for
Joseph Junior College, if a student took general
physically handicapped students, which includes
math or lower-level math for their 10th standard
visually impaired students, speech and hearing