ERIC EJ1110818: Concept Maps and Informational Read-Alouds: Strengthening Both Science and Reading for Elementary Students

2013·0.45 MB·English

by  ERIC

29

Concept Maps and Informational Read-Alouds: Strengthening both
Science and Reading for Elementary Students

Jaime Berry
Jalene Potter
Victoria Hollas
Sam Houston State University

Abstract
This quasi-experimental study compared the effects of concept mapping and teacher
generated questioning on students’ organization and retention of science knowledge when
used along with interactive informational read-alouds. Fifty-eight third grade students
completed an eight-day unit regarding “soil formation.” Students who participated in
concept mapping scored significantly higher on a test of relational vocabulary, identification
of key ideas and written expression than students who participated in traditional teacher
questioning.

Proficient skills in science and reading are Fortunately, there have been promising
prerequisites to be productive members of instructional practices shown to benefit
society. Individuals must be able to use science and reading instruction including:
scientific processes in everyday decision- integrating science and literacy
making and must possess the scientific (Pearson, Moje & Greenleaf, 2010);
background knowledge to make sound incorporating informational text
decisions (National Science Standards [NSS], (using science trade books (Smolkin,
1996). In addition, individuals must have McTigue, Donovan & Coleman,
the literacy tools to read and comprehend 2008);
informational articles about current using informational interactive read-
scientific topics that affect their lives (e.g. alouds (Smolkin & Donovan, 2001);
salmonella, cancer research) (Draper, the use of graphic organizers
2011). Moreover, many individuals will specifically concept maps (Oliver,
have roles in society that require science 2009);
and literacy skills including teachers, and teacher questioning (Heilman,
engineers, scientists, and researchers
Blair & Rupley, 2002).
(National Standards, 1996). However,

current instructional practices, in which
But little or no research has combined
reading and content instruction are typically
these methods to examine its effect on
separated, often leave students unable to
student learning. The present study
handle the more challenging demands of
examined how the use of interactive
content material (Shanahan & Shanahan,
read-alouds using science trade books
2008).
with concept mapping and/or

questioning affected elementary
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students’ organization and retention of decisions and express positions
different types of science knowledge. that are scientifically and
technologically informed. A
Integration of Science and literate citizen should be able to
Literacy is Not a New Concept evaluate the quality of scientific
information on the basis of the
The integration of reading and science is
sources and the methods used
not a new concept. In fact, scientists
to generate it. Scientific literacy
have integrated the two for centuries
also implies the capacity to pose
(Pearson, Moje, Greenleaf, 2010). To
and evaluate arguments based
help students to experience science in
on evidence and to apply
its true state, then teachers must
conclusions from such
provide a learning environment that
arguments appropriately (NSS,
promotes the integration of science and
1996, pp. 2).
literacy.

As evidenced above, a key factor in the
With the explosion of scientific
preceding definition is the need for
information from salmonella illnesses
literacy skills. One must be able to read
(Draper, 2011) to cloning (Rupley &
and most importantly understand text,
Slough 2011), there has never been
articles, and journals to learn about
such a crucial time for one to be a
scientific phenomena. Scientific literacy
“scientifically literate citizen” (Fang &
also implies that one must be able to
Wei, 2010).
write and communicate effectively to

make informed decisions. Accordingly,
The National Science Education
researchers have suggested that literacy
Standards define science literacy as the
is an integral part of learning science
following:
(Shanahan & Shanahan, 2008).
Scientific literacy means that a

person can ask, find, or
The Importance of Incorporating
determine answers to questions
derived from curiosity about Informational Text
everyday experiences. It means Incorporating informational text is not
that a person has the ability to an option but a necessity for teachers.
describe, explain, and predict By the time students reach sixth grade,
natural phenomena. Scientific 75% of their reading will be from
literacy entails being able to informational texts (Moss, 2005). In
read with understanding articles addition, many of their assessments by
about science in the popular grade four will require them to
press and to engage in social understand and comprehend
conversation about the validity informational text. For example, 50% of
of the conclusions. Scientific the fourth grade National Assessment of
literacy implies that person can Educational Progress, (NAEP) contained
identify scientific issues informational text (Moss, 2005).
underlying national and local
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It is evident that students need early Informational Interactive Read-
exposure to informational text to help Alouds
them prepare for later grade levels and
Reading aloud in both homes and
the expectations of the College and
classrooms is a widespread practice
Career Readiness Standards. Duke
(Beck & McKeown, 2001) that has
(2000) brought awareness to the
shown to be beneficial to learning
educational community about the
(Morrison & Wlodarczyk, 2009). The
importance of informational text as well
report Becoming a Nation of Readers
as the scarcity of informational text in
(Anderson, Hiebert, Wilkinson, & Scott,
the primary grades. In her landmark
1985) concluded that “the single most
study that shed light on the use of
important activity for building the
instructional text in the primary grades,
knowledge required for eventual
she investigated the time spent with
success in reading is reading aloud to
informational text and found only 3.6
children” (p. 33). Recently, there has
minutes was the average time spent per
been an increase in intentionally and
day on this genre. Jeong, Gaffney &
purposefully combining reading aloud of
Choi (2010) extended Duke’s study with
informational texts with guided
grades 2-4. They found consistent
conversation or discussion, also referred
results with one minute spent on
to as “informational interactive read-
instructional text in grade 1 with an
alouds”.
increase to only 16 minutes in grades 3

and 4.
An informational interactive read-aloud

is a multifaceted instructional technique
It has been suggested that the scarcity
in which a teacher models reading
of informational text may be associated
thought processes while engaging
with the decline in reading achievement
students in discussion through sharing
after third grade (Chall, Jacobs &
and posing questions (Beck & McKeown,
Baldwin, 1990; Ness, 2011;). This
2001; Smolkin & Donovan, 2003;).
decline has also been referred to as the
When modeling, teachers “think aloud”
“fourth-grade slump” (Jeong, Gaffney,
to reveal reading strategies that
Choi, 2010). Around fourth grade, there
proficient readers use in reading and
is an increase of informational text.
understanding informational text
Some fourth graders are unprepared to
including “fix up” strategies when
comprehend this informational text and,
comprehension breaks down
therefore, experience a decrease in
(Loxterman, Beck, McKeown, 1994).
reading achievement (Ness, 2011).
These metacognitive strategies are
With this evidence, there is an even
essential to learning because they allow
stronger need for primary teachers to
learners to assess their own level of
incorporate informational text in their
comprehension and adjust strategies as
curriculum.
needed (Oster, 2001).

Instructional Strategies Used
Another critical component of
in this Study interactive read-alouds is the facilitation
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of dialogic discussion encouraging arrows, lines and text boxes, graphic
students to participate in a collaborative organizers aid students in learning from
discussion (Reznitskaya, 2012). As text in multiple ways (Hall, Kent,
opposed to traditional read-alouds in McCully, Davis & Wanzek, 2013). The
which the teacher has sole authority, a visual structure helps students organize
dialogic discussion is unique because information and make relevant
authority is shared among the students connections (Katayama & Robinson,
and the teacher encouraging students 2000). Translating information from a
to discuss pose questions share their text format to a graphic organizer can
ideas and examine others’ viewpoints deepen the learning process for the
regarding the text (Reznitskaya, 2012). reader (Nesbit & Adesope, 2006).
In addition, students are provided an
opportunity to make connections with This study focused on the use of the
the text. Through this cognitive concept map, created by Novak (1990)
process, a student makes a connection as a tool to help students organize ideas
to self, other texts, or to the world and thoughts especially in the area of
(Harvey & Goudvis, 2007). Text may science. In using a concept map, a
have different meanings for different teacher or student selects a certain
individuals because each reader brings topic to be mapped (Novak & Gowin,
his or her own background knowledge 1984). As shown in Figure 1, the
and personal experiences that shape students have an opportunity to identify
the meaning of the text (Rosenblatt, key concepts and then draw lines to
1978). Rosenblatt (1978) proposed a connect and show relationships
“transactional view” of reading in which between concepts. Linking words or
the reader transacts with the text to phrases are used to define these
make meaning (Morrison & Wlodarcyzk, connections. A particular advantage to
2009; Rosenblatt, 1978). Not only do concept mapping is that it can be used
students have an opportunity to discuss as a pre-reading, during reading and/or
and deepen their understanding of a post-reading activity.
complex science concepts, discussion
provides a platform for minimizing Teacher Questioning
students’ misconceptions (through A common and very traditional
teachers’ assessment) and increasing approach to teaching and learning is
vocabulary development (Leung, 2008). teacher-generated questioning which
has proven to have positive effects on
Graphic Organizers and Concept students’ text comprehension (2007;
Mapping Feldt, Feldt, & Kilburg, 2002). Among
Graphic organizers are a literacy the benefits is the promotion of student
strategy tool shown to benefit students understanding by focusing attention of
in learning content (Katayama & the important details. In addition, this
Robinson, 2000). By organizing instructional strategy can be beneficial
information and showing relationships in clarifying meaning as well as
between concepts through the use of minimizing students’ misinterpretation
of information (Heilman, Blair & Rupley,
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2002). Questioning can also aid in comparison group participated in a
propelling prior knowledge by activating teacher-questioning activity. Both
students’ experiential and conceptual activities were conducted before and
backgrounds (Heilman et, al., 2002) after the informational interactive read-
promoting deep processing of aloud.
information (McKeown & Beck, 1993).
Treatment Group: Concept
But yet, there have been several Mapping
criticisms to using teacher questioning
Used as a pre-reading activity and to
as an instructional method (Feldt, et al.,
assess prior knowledge, participants in
2002). First, students may search for
the treatment group created a concept
important ideas to memorize instead of
map on what they already knew about
making connections and increasing
the concept being taught for the day
relational knowledge (Cook & Mayer,
(e.g. soil formation). Then students had
1983). Secondly, some of the questions
an opportunity to share their concept
that may be used, especially publisher-
map with their classmates, followed by
provided, fail to promote higher
the creation of a class constructed
cognitive levels (Feldt, et al., 2002).
concept map. As a post-reading activity,
Although effective teacher questioning
students created another concept map
has also been shown to promote
as shown in Figure 2 on what they
students’ understanding (Heisey &
learned during the lesson, again
Kucan, 2010; Lloyd, 2004), most
followed by an opportunity to share
questions are not designed to promote
their map with their classmates.
connections between ideas in the same

manner as concept mapping.
Comparison Group: Teacher

Questioning
Methodology
Since teacher questioning is commonly
Participants
used in traditional teaching, it was the
The participants were third grade strategy used for the comparison group.
students from an urban elementary As a pre-reading strategy and to assess
school in the northwest region of the prior knowledge, the teacher posed
United States. There were 29 several questions in regards to the topic
participants in the treatment group and being discussed for the day (e.g. soil
29 participants in the comparison formation). For example, one of the
group. Both groups participated in an questions posed by the teacher on the
eight-day study over the scientific topic first day of the lesson was “What do you
of soil formation. know about soil?” Students had an
opportunity to write down their
Both groups participated in an answers and share their responses with
informational interactive read-aloud. the classmates. The teacher posted the
The students in the treatment group students’ answers on the board. As a
participated in a concept mapping post-reading activity, the teacher posed
activity while participants in the questions regarding the lesson. For
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example one of the questions posed by
the teacher was “What is the purpose of The relational vocabulary assessment
soil?” Students had an opportunity to required students to find the underlying
write down their answers followed by similarity between a set of concepts
an opportunity to share their responses whereas the matching vocabulary test
with the class as is a common classroom relied on simple definitions. The pre-
practice. test was administered a week before
the study. The post-test was completed
Both Groups: Informational the day after the study was completed
Interactive Read-Aloud and the delayed post-test was
administered five days after the
Participants in both the treatment and
completion of the instructional unit.
the comparison group participated in a

series of informational interactive read-
Data Analysis
alouds conducted by the science
teacher. The teacher used a science Analysis indicated that the treatment
trade book focusing on the specific and comparison group performed
concept they were learning for that day. comparable on the pre-test indicating
The trade books were selected by a that there was not a significant
group of third grade teachers based on difference between the background
content accuracy and aesthetic appeal. knowledge of participants in both
During the informational interactive groups. As shown in Table 2 located at
read-aloud, the science teacher the end of the article, the treatment
modeled her reading process while group scored significantly higher than
engaging students in dialogic discussion the comparison group on the post-and
regarding the scientific text. delayed post-tests on three of the four
assessments including relational
Assessments vocabulary (measuring relational
knowledge), multiple choice (measuring
Pre-test, post-test and delayed post-test
ability to identify key ideas), and the
were developed by the researchers.
writing assessment (measuring clarity of
Information about the concept of soil
written expression). These findings
formation was measured using the
appear to be quite logical due to the
following types of assessments:
goals cognitive strategies involved in
a) relational vocabulary assessment
completing concept mapping
(measuring relational knowledge);
procedures. Surprisingly, there was not
b) vocabulary matching assessment
a significant difference in the
(measuring individual word
performance of the treatment group
knowledge);
and comparison group on matching
c) multiple-choice comprehension
vocabulary.
assessment (measuring students’

ability to identify key ideas; and
It is also important to highlight that
d) a writing comprehension assessment
although the treatment group
(measuring students’ clarity of
outperformed the comparison group,
written expression).
both groups showed significant growth.
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As shown in Table 3 located at the end Discussion of Results
of the article, the treatment group
Relational Knowledge
showed significant growth between the
Relational knowledge is being able to
pre-test and post-test on all four
identify relationships between concepts
assessments specifically in relational
as well as how they are related (DiCecco
knowledge (as measured by the
& Gleason, 2002). Based on construct-
relational vocabulary assessment),
ivist ideas, Novak designed the concept
ability to identify key ideas (as
map as a tool to show students’
measured by the multiple choice
understanding and meaning of concepts
assessment), clarity of written
in their own cognitive structure (Novak
expression and use domain knowledge
& Gowin, 1984). Concept maps have
(as measured by the writing
been shown to be beneficial due to its
assessment), and individual word
visuospatial elements. It is logical then,
knowledge (as measured by the
that students who used concept
vocabulary matching assessment). In
mapping increased their relational
addition, there was not a significant
knowledge. This graphical instructional
difference between their performance
tool features cross-links that highlight
on the post-test and on the delayed
relationships or links between concepts
post-test (given five days later) on all
in different domains of the concept
four assessments.
map, signaling hierarchical relationships

(or other types of relationships) that can
As shown in Table 4 located at the end
be immediately perceived by the
of the article, the comparison group
student (Novak & Canas, 2006).
showed significant growth between the

pre-test and post-test on all four
Recall of Key Ideas
assessments. It is important to note
The data also revealed that concept
that there was not a significant
mapping was beneficial in helping
difference between their performance
students recall key ideas as measured
on the post-test and delayed post-test
by a multiple-choice assessment. This
on the writing assessment. However,
finding is consistent with dual coding
there was a significant difference on the
theory suggesting that storing
relational vocabulary assessment,
information in two codes, verbal and
multiple-choice assessment and
nonverbal (e.g., visual), may aid in
matching vocabulary assessment. This
increasing memory or recall of
indicates that participants in the
information because it provides two
comparison group were able to retain
pathways to retrieve it from long-term
information in written expression but
memory (Paivio, 1986; Paivio & Csapo,
not in relational vocabulary knowledge,
1973; Sadoski, 2005; Vekiri, 2002). Dual
identifying key ideas and individual
coding theory can be applied to concept
word knowledge. Data analysis of the
mapping because the graphical
specific types of science knowledge
organizers uses visual graphics (shapes)
assessed is highlighted in the next
as well as text proving advantageous for
sections.
memory.

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Written Expression not easily captured by such a format.
The students in this study using concept Therefore, there may be other literacy
mapping scored higher on tests of instructional methods that might be
written expression. This is consistent more beneficial for individual word
with findings from DiCecco and Gleason learning.
(2002) who found that students who
used graphic organizers for learning Retaining Information
science also scored higher on written Finally, an important feature in this
essays. One of the most critical experimental design was the use of
processes in writing is the organization immediate and delayed post-testing.
of ideas. According to Novak and Gowin The treatment group’s gains in
(1984), graphic organizers such as relational vocabulary, identifying key
concept maps are powerful pedagogical ideas, and written expression were
tools because they allow learners to maintained after five days as measured
visualize concepts as well as the in the delayed testing indicating that
hierarchical relationships between them concept mapping facilitates learning as
which could result in clearly articulated well as supports the retention of the
and organized written essays. In information. According to Robinson
summary, the use of graphic organizers, (1998), one of the limitations in past
such as concepts maps, can be research on graphic organizers is the
beneficial for students in the area of limited use of assessing students in a
writing combining their ability to apply delayed measurement. However, to
newly acquired knowledge as well as measure long term learning, delayed
express their relational knowledge in a measures are more important than
coherent essay. immediate recall.

Individual Word Learning As expected, all groups performed
lower in the delayed post-test than the
In addition to discussing the significant
immediate post-tests. However, the
differences between the groups, it is
amount of loss differed between the
equally critical to discuss areas in which
treatment group and comparison group.
they did not differ in performance.
On all of the four assessments, the
Specifically, there was not a significant
treatment group had a lower point
difference between the treatment
decrease in the mean average between
group and the comparison group on
the time-points of the post-test and the
individual word learning, as measured
delayed post-test indicating that the
by the matching vocabulary assessment.
treatment group demonstrated higher
Of interest, in the analysis of graphic
retention than the comparison group.
organizer research, few studies have

used the matching format as an
Limitations
assessment. This may be due to the fact
that the type of learning theoretically The study had several limitations that
promoted by concept maps might have affected the statistical
(relationships) (Novak & Canas, 2006), is outcome of the data. A longer
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treatment period would provide students when creating the concept
students with more opportunities to maps may have been a rich source of
further develop their skills associated learning.
with the use of concept mapping with
additional topics and concepts in Technology Applications
science. It would also be interesting to
The beauty about concept mapping is
see if levels of differences between the
that it can be done before, during and
treatment group and the comparison
after reading. In addition, concept
group would increase, decrease or
mapping can be incorporated into all
sustain. Next, it would have been ideal
content areas. Recently, there has been
if there were a longer period between
a plethora of new technology
the post-test and delayed post-test.
applications featuring graphic
However, due to constraints of the
organizers. In fact, these applications
school calendar, there was only five
have opened the door for collaborative
days between the post-test and delayed
opportunities providing a platform for
post-test. It would have been ideal if
students to work on their project in
there were a longer period between the
real-time in partners or even groups.
post-test and delayed post-test.
We have highlighted several

applications in Table 5 located at the
Implications
end of the article. Figure 1 is an
While moderate in scale, the results of example of a concept map using
this study indicated that concept Bubbl.us. Not only will this increase
mapping coupled with interactive their technology skills in this Digital Age,
informational read-alouds could be an it will increase their knowledge in
effective strategy in learning science learning science concepts.
concepts. The treatment group scored
higher on three of the four assessments.
This finding indicates that concept
mapping may be suited to promote
certain types of knowledge including
identifying key ideas, recalling
information and written expression.
The use of concept mapping did not
take more time than answering
comprehension questions, but was
more effective on three of four
assessments, in both immediate and
delayed post-testing. Using concept
maps with a set of related texts, or text
set facilitated students’ connections
across texts and focus on the underlying
science concepts. Additionally, the
discourse and interaction between
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Figure 1. Example of Concept Map

Figure 2. Student’s Concept Map on Soil

Texas Journal of Literacy Education Volume 1, Issue 1