ERIC EJ1102886: GIS Enabled PBl Pedagogy: The Effects on Students' Learning in the Classroom

2009·1.6 MB·English

by  ERIC

RESEARCH PAPERS
GIS ENABLED PBL PEDAGOGY: THE EFFECTS ON STUDENTS'
LEARNING IN THE CLASSROOM
By
YAN LIU * KUMAR LAXMAN **
* National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
** Centre for Educational Development, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.
ABSTRACT
In efforts aimed at acquainting learners with 'how to learn' skills rather than static content knowledge, more student-
centric instructional approaches are being increasingly adopted in informing curriculum design and delivery.
Technology-rich problem solving environments offer great promise in scaffolding and facilitating student-centred
learning. Geographic information system is one powerful technology that enables learners to become proficient spatial
problem solvers, analytical users of geographic information and expert decision makers. This paper investigates the
pedagogical benefits of GIS in influencing students' problem solving performances in Singapore. Data was collected by
administering a likert-scale based questionnaire constructed specifically for this study and analysed using statistical
method. Students participated in this research highlighted many of the instructional strengths of GIS that enabled them
to become competent problem solvers and self-directed learners. They also pointed out some of the challenges which
educators need to bear in mind in the development and enactment of GIS enabled pedagogy.
Keywords: Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Educational Technology, Problem-Based Learning.
INTRODUCTION systems (GIS) are being commonly exploited by
With the increasing emphasis on life-long learning and educators for their instructional effectiveness in training
globalised knowledge economies, there is a need for learners to become proficient spatial thinkers,
educators to experiment with and adopt new knowledgeable users of the specifications of geographic
instructional methods as well as adapt old teaching information infrastructures and tactical decision makers.
practices to make them more current. In the context of Student-centered Learning in Geography Education
such an educational climate, learners need to be self-
Student-centred pedagogy engenders a learning
directed in their readiness to want to learn, draw upon
culture that is based upon narrative conversations
their life experiences as valuable sources of knowledge
between teachers and students (Caulfield 1991).
codification and engage in collaborative discourses with
Student-centred learning models create pedagogical
their peers and tutors in pursuit of intellectual inquiry.
structures that are useful and relevant by empowering
Problem solving is a pedagogical approach associated
students to be actively involved in the learning process.
with effective learning. It encourages students to be
Students are encouraged to explore meaningful content
independent in their learning and actively seek subject
knowledge processing and application of learnt
matter content from a various information sources to
expertise in real-world applied contexts. Hands-on
deconstruct problems that are ambiguous in character
collaborative activities are used to scaffold instructional
and possess multiple solution states. The immense
modalities and knowledge sharing (Estes 2004). Problem-
potential of educational information technologies in
based or inquiry-based learning is a frequently relied
facilitating the development and implementation of
upon methodology of student-centred learning in
innovative, student-centred curricular approaches has
geographic education since it promotes spatial
been well documented. Geographic information
awareness and comparative thinking more naturally. By
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using this method to study a world region, for example, Use of GIS in Inquiry based Geography Education
students are stimulated to personalise their learning by Geographic inquiry skills provide the necessary tools and
identifying their prior knowledge competencies, techniques to enable one to think geographically. These
investigating new data sets, evaluating and applying the skills promote spatial awareness and comparative
new data to make sense of a geographic location that is thinking. The inquiry process when applied to geography
being analysed. In this way, a deeper conceptual requires students to be able to visualise data, propose
understanding of relevant disciplinary content is hypotheses, analyse and interpret spatial phenomenon.
obtained to build up schemas of associative Geographic information system (GIS) is a technology that
understandings rather than the learning of disembodied is able to support the cognitive development of essential
facts. For example, Hardwick (2001) designed a geographic inquiry skills in the context of problem solving
problem-based learning activity for middle and high and case analysis. GIS is capable of capturing, storing,
school students where they used historic city directories to analysing, and displaying geographically referenced
map and analyse ethnic patterns in Sacramento, information identified according to location. The power
California. Fournier (2002) implemented problem-based of a GIS comes from its ability to relate different
learning at university-wide level by developing information in a spatial context and to help learners to
collaborative activities for a world geography class and reach cogent conclusions predicated on these
preparing students for their role as problem solvers in the relationships. Hence analysis with GIS can provide vital
working world. Halvorson and Wescoat (2002) posed ill- information leading to better strategic decision-making.
structured and complex problems in a problem-based
Without GIS, geographic inquiry can be cumbersome for
setting in large enrolment undergraduate class to teach
a teacher. For example, if a teacher wants students to
issues surrounding world water resources by modelling
understand population trends in Asia and its impact on
real world experiences. Students in the study found that
economic development, without reliance upon an
going beyond merely acquiring decontextualised
integrated system such as GIS researching on past and
subject matter they developed authentic learning
current population sizes, energy data sets and creating
experiences by negotiating and reaching consensus
information rich maps for further student-led analysis
within diverse groups of students and solving multi-
becomes onerous tasks. On the other hand, with access
faceted problems. They came to the conclusion that
to GIS tools and an understanding of resources, teachers
problem-based learning is a successful pedagogy that
can create or co-create with students accurate and
can enhance the quality of instructional transactions in
standardised representations of data. Students are
large-enrolment classes. Collaboration, an essential
immersed in a learning environment that takes them
component of student-centred pedagogical
through global, regional and advanced investigations
orientations has been consistently shown from studies to
using the geographic inquiry process scaffolded by
be an effective learning enhancer. Synergistic
affordances of the GIS system (Peterson 2007).
partnerships in classrooms foster interactive educational
Benefits of teaching with GIS
environments where exchange of ideas and opinions are
There is little contention in research literature on the
freely and actively encouraged to foster greater
pedagogical effectiveness of GIS in the classroom. It has
opportunities for socially-mediated learning to occur.
been shown comprehensively that adaptive
Rutherford and Lloyd (2001) compared two instructional
implementation of GIS enhances geographic learning.
approaches to teach introductory world geography.
Keiper (1999) posits four main reasons buttressing the
Improvements in student achievements were noted due
argument for incorporating GIS within curricular design:
to the positive impact of small-group collaboration when
GIS is becoming more common locally; GIS is a valuable
combined with computer-aided instructional strategies.
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tool for environmental analysis; GIS enhances students' Kerski (2003) conducted research on the efficacy of GIS
interests in the subject area being taught; and GIS on learning for high school students and concluded that
exposure develops in careers in science and GIS improved geography content and analytical skills for
engineering. Baker and White (2003) tested the effect of both average and below-average students. Summerby-
GIS on student learning in middle school science classes Murray (2001) used GIS to teach undergraduate students
and found that GIS can foster contextually rich student how to analyse historic landscapes as a way to tackle
learning and aid in-depth analysis. The researchers real-world problem solving and reported that the use of
documented that GIS-enabled geography learning GIS has shaped students' ways of thinking of historical
facilitates students' mastery of spatial reasoning, geography and educates students in thematically driven
inquiring ability, location awareness and problem solving and theoretically sound research practices. Keiper (1999)
skills. Going beyond rote memorisation of discrete facts, designed GIS-oriented lessons for a fifth-grade class to
teaching with GIS improves students' integrated science search for and query data to solve problems through a
process skills, especially with data analysis activities treasure hunt. Keiper reported that students felt
(Baker & White 2003). Using GIS has also been noted to motivated by their learning experiences and were more
have an impact on the affective domains of learning: confident about the problem solving abilities.
Students' attitudes toward learning the subject were Barriers to teaching with GIS
found to have been improved, naturally increasing their
Besides considering the numerous pedagogical
learning achievements. This has been attributed to the
strengths of integrating GIS within curricular design,
immediate feedback students receive by working with
educators also need to be aware of the barriers to
GIS. GIS enables teachers to create lessons focusing on
implementing GIS supported lessons. One impediment
geographic issues at local, national and global levels
to successful GIS implementation is the availability of
that are of interest to students. In this way, GIS has the
appropriate hardware and software for running the GIS
ability to enhance intrinsic motivation in students
program (Patterson, Reeve & Page 2003). Another
because of the high levels of engagement with the
pedagogical concern centers on the appropriate
learning process and the ability to study geographic
academic levels for teaching with GIS and which
phenomena of a more personal significance (West
content-related concepts are best taught using GIS. A
2003).
key difficulty lies in the lack of time for the teacher to
Numerous studies have been done to evaluate the master fluency in new technologies such as GIS and
overall effectiveness of incorporating GIS in curricular exploring avenues for their implementation in classrooms
design. Wanner and Kerski (1998) found that students with to promote learning ecologies emphasizing critical
low to average geographic achievement prior to GIS thinking and knowledge generation activities. The
lessons can raise their achievement to the same level as majority of teachers utilizing GIS are probably the only
higher achieving students when GIS is implemented in ones in schools using the technology and spend
geography curriculum. This was due to the positive enormous amounts of time in learning GIS and preparing
influence of GIS in strengthening student learning in GIS-driven lessons. Due to a lack of external incentives
inquiry-based and standards-based skills. Drennon and recognition in rewarding teachers who actively
(2005) developed a problem-based learning explore the educational possibilities with GIS, a GIS
environment using GIS to teach geographic skills to an teacher is often referred to as the 'solitary GIS missionary'
undergraduate class of non-geographers. She reported (Audet & Paris 1997). Finally, there is the need to train
that students taking the course assimilated strong teachers and provide on-going professional
connectional and technical skills and were able to apply development support in guiding teachers after formal
GIS technology to address real world issues. Similarly, training in the proficient usage of GIS with educational
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intent. Bednarz and Audet (1999) observed that if pre- secondary school geography education. The
service teachers are taught with and about GIS within the overarching PBL-GIS project adopted a quasi-
educational technology component of their teacher experimental approach to test the PBL-GIS pedagogy
preparation program there is a higher likelihood of them with an experimental group of students and compare
embedding this technology in their teaching. Bednarz their learning outcomes with a control group who were
(2007) suggested that experienced teacher need exposed to PBL but not GIS technology. Though an
continual support to encourage leveraging upon the experimental research strategy involving random
affordances of GIS technology in the classrooms. This sampling would have been ideal, due to pragmatic
support takes on two different forms: (i) internal support in constraints a quasi-experimental approach was
establishing networks or communities of practice within adopted. Attempts were made to minimise threats to
individual schools or a cluster of schools in engaging in internal validity and approximate an approach that
joint collaborations with experienced GIS teachers to tap comes close to the rigours of a true experiment. In the PBL-
their expertise (ii) external support come from external GIS project, three PBL activities were developed and
training vendors or agencies in disseminating information given to students in the control and experimental groups
on technical updates to the GIS software or in raising GIS- to investigate the mediating effects of the intervention
oriented pedagogical proficiencies. Secondary training on GIS in influencing PBL outcomes. The research
teachers who have gained experience from site was the National University of Singapore High School
implementing GIS have recommended that more of Mathematics and Science (NUS High School in short).
initiatives to situate GIS as a learning tool need to be This school is a specialised independent high school
mounted through the offering of more workshops to emphasising critical thinking, independent learning,
teachers and handholding in the development of GIS- problem solving, writing, research and excellence in
related modules that are well-integrated within existing science and technology within a broad-based
curriculum (Palladino 1994). curriculum using innovative teaching methods and
In a previous study (Liu et al. 2010) which evaluates the technologically rich classrooms. The participant students
efficacy effects of geographic information systems (GIS) were Secondary 3 students of 14 years of age from a
in enhancing and augmenting the problem solving geography course called 'The Human Population
performance of secondary school students in Singapore, Dynamics'. The control and experimental groups
it was amply demonstrated with evidence that GIS respectively consisted of 25 and 24 students.
technology indeed offers rich learning opportunities for The data collection for the study presented in this paper
improving students' geographic problem solving and was carried out with the use of a survey instrument which
analytic thinking abilities. This paper is an extension of the was carefully constructed to explore the different
previous one and is particularly aimed at investigating the meaningful ways in which GIS could potentially impact
context-dependent pedagogic usefulness of GIS and problem solving pedagogy. The survey consisted of a
the specific ways in which it can define and impact combination of 5-point Likert-scale items and open-
problem solving outcomes. ended questions (a copy of the survey is found in the
Research Methodology appendix). Likert-scale items were chosen since they
provide a structured framework to gathering and
The strand of research examining the affordances of GIS
assessing students' feedback on the situated usefulness
in promoting higher-order learning as covered in this
of GIS as a problem solving enhancer. Likert scale also is
paper was carried out within the broader context of the
easier to construct and carries a higher degree of
research agenda of the problem-based learning using
reliability than other scales (Tittle & Hill 1967). However, a
GIS technologies (PBL-GIS) research project that
Likert scale is constrained in that they fail to unearth the
attempted to study the effectiveness of PBL-GIS in
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underlying reasoning and explanations to support the
STD
Items Mean
perceptions triggered in the target audience in Deviation
responding to the items listed in the Likert scale. They I was comfortable using GIS 3.3 0.7
reveal little about the causes for answers and thus might Using GIS is an effective method to improving learning 3.4 0.9
have limited usefulness (Gall, Borg & Gall 1996). I prefer using GIS in my learning as compared to the
3.4 1.1
Traditional method
With a view to mitigating the effect of this limitation, open- Investigating different topics of concern 3.3 0.8
ended questions were included in the survey to probe Analyzing data patterns, linkages and trends 3.7 1.0
deeper students' perceptions of their experiences in Engaging in problem solving 3.4 1.0
using GIS technology and how it shaped their conceptual Enhancing my ability to ask my own questions and 3.0 0.9
seek answers to them
learning of geographic phenomena. In addition, open-
Enabling inter-disciplinary learning 3.0 0.8
ended descriptive questions provide richer contexts for
Using maps to process and report geographic 3.6 1.1
information
respondents to post detailed reflections on their feelings,
Examining spatial organization of different places 3.6 0.9
attitudes and understandings on the issues being
Creating my own computerized maps 3.3 1.1
examined.
Exploring issues from different angles of analysis 3.2 0.9
The survey was administered to the 24 students in the
Facilitating collaboration with my fellow students 3.5 1.0
experimental group in a printed format through the Developing in me a thinking mindset 3.2 0.9
teacher-in-charge at the end of the PBL-GIS project. 22 Supporting me in pursuing scientific inquiry 3.0 1.0
out of the 24 students participated in the survey thus Examining data evidences and making right 3.2 1.0
interpretations
contributing to a high response rate of 92 per cent.
Accessing the most recent information to make 3.5 0.9
Students' responses to the quantitative and qualitative decisions
Increasing my motivation for learning 3.1 0.8
items in the survey were analysed to draw out salient
Challenging me to be a better learner 3.1 0.9
findings that are discussed in the following sections.
Results and Discussion Table 1. Mean Score and Standard Deviation Computed
for the Different Items listed in the Survey Administered
The mean score and standard deviation computed for to Participant Students.
the different items listed in the survey administered to problem space; and the levels of cognitive interactivities
participant students are presented in the following fa cilitated by task demands between the features of GIS
Table 1. software and learners and technology fluency of
The power of GIS in promoting student-centred learning learners. Hence, in evaluating the pedagogical
cultures and knowledge transforming discourses in significance of the results of this study on GIS integration in
geography classrooms was analysed in this study. geography education, readers need to consider the
Readers need to take note that though the primary effects of these variables on problem solving outcomes
objective of this study was to examine the pedagogical since they were not totally accounted for or controlled
affordances of GIS in modelling and shaping problem due to unavoidable limitations of time, manpower and
solving processes, the technology alone is not the sole access.
determinant of students' success in accomplishing GIS- Positive impact of GIS in advancing problem solving
directed problem solving goals. There is a matrix of other pedagogy
interacting factors that influence engagement with GIS-
Student respondents who participated in this research
driven problem solving environments: the effectiveness
reported that GIS is a useful and promising technology
of the design of problem solving task; the richness of
mediator that offered educational potential in
simulation of task domain by task requirements; the types
enhancing the learning process of problem solving
of scaffolding structures and tools embedded in the
through multifarious ways. Students were generally
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comfortable enough with the interface and associated the key requirements described in the given task
tools of GIS (mean score of 3.3) despite the inherent scenario. For instance, Student M aptly underscored this
complicatedness of GIS and the short duration of training learning gain from using GIS with a cryptic comment in
provided to them during the intervention phases in her feedback: “GIS encourages us to ask many
familiarising them with the features of GIS. Students questions”.
viewed GIS as an effective technology that could be Analytical Reasoning & Information Processing
leveraged upon by educators in improving and
Not unexpectedly, the item on the usefulness of GIS in
innovating students' learning of core competency-
analysing data patterns, linkages and trends registered
based geographic skills (mean of 3.4). Overall, students
the highest mean rate of 3.7 in students' responses as
expressed a favourable stance towards embedding GIS
GIS's analytical capability is one of the chief attribute
in curricular practices to foster a paradigmatic shift from
strengths of GIS. The different map layers representing
didactic geography classrooms to student-centred
different geographic themes could be independently
active learning ecologies.
accessed or combined to reference many different
Inquiry-based Learning properties associated with a specific geographical
The majority of students (82 per cent of students) reported location to facilitate study of functional relationships
that using GIS to investigate a range of relevant between data sets and points. Student Q specifically
geographic topics was helpful. Since the computerised remarked that “GIS has allowed me to learn how to
GIS system has enormous digital information capacity observe and analyse spatial differences and how to
that allows users to rapidly access, analyse and process make use of this program to facilitate my learning”. He
vast amounts of spatially referenced data, students further added that “GIS has helped me to develop spatial
could analytically explore a myriad of issues and engage reasoning, spatial problem solving, spatial thinking and
in decision making. computing skills”.
Students felt somewhat neutral about the impact of Students reported high scores (mean of 3.6) in their
engagement with GIS in enhancing their abilities to pose feedback on the effectiveness of using GIS maps to
their own scaffolding questions and solicit answers to process and present geographic information. This was
them in formulating solutions for the problem tasks. This due to the 'intellectual' affordances of GIS by adding
conclusion was drawn based upon the high percentage layers of sophistication to ordinary paper-based
of students (55 per cent of students) who returned a mapmaking by giving the user the ability to interactively
neutral response for this item and the computed mean call out and query maps and their embedded data (Van
for this item of 3.0. Though GIS itself as an educational Demark 1992). Frequent use of GIS-enabled maps and
technology platform influences the development of making sense of the data contained in these maps
independent inquiry skills in students, it is the combined improved students' locational knowledge
effect of the structuredness of task design and competencies. The integration of database
effectiveness of facilitation skills of GIS teachers that management functions with the visualisation and
actually influences students' mastery of the skills. The statistical analysis benefits offered by GIS situates it as a
focus of the training interventions being on coaching powerful instructional technology system. Graphic
students to be conversant with the technical features of display techniques of GIS turn abstract models of the real
GIS and providing opportunities for exploring the learning world otherwise static on printed paper into dynamic
potential of GIS, little time could be devoted towards representations allowing students to manipulate the
improving students' inchoate skills on self-directed elements of the digital maps and visualise the
authoring of a repertoire of subsidiary questions that relationships between these elements to explain
guide students towards constructing cogent answers to phenomena, predict outcomes and plan strategies.
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A large proportion (about 60 per cent) of students valued problem solving. Students are able to cognitively explore
the power of GIS in scaffolding students' efforts in a problem situation from multiple dialectical
examining the spatial organisation of different places. perspectives and develop solution artefacts that are
Linking physical locations to information in a database theoretically well-grounded to unified frameworks of
and then extracting and analysing needed information understanding. Supporting this finding, Student C
from multiple spatial perspectives helped students mentioned in his feedback that using GIS to “study
become better decision makers. Scrutinising maps, different perspectives of geography was educational”.
images and data associated with different places in a Multidisciplinary Problem Solving and Decision Making
highly interactive manner supported the systematic
The effectiveness of GIS in accomplishing problem
development of spatial thinking, reasoning and problem
solving was highly rated (mean of 3.4) by participant
solving proficiencies in students. The process of searching
students in the survey. Nearly 59 per cent of these students
for, processing, interpreting and synthesising spatial
indicated that they found GIS to be of great utility in
information enhanced learners' engagement and
augmenting their problem solving skills. The uniqueness of
motivation.
GIS lies in its ability to integrate geography's spatial
Students found the feature of creating their own perspectives with the data organisation and analysis
computerised maps in GIS to be particularly useful in capabilities of modern information technologies. Hence
catalysing their learning experiences. This observation is GIS served as a powerful problem solving tool in creating
evident from analysing the relatively high mean score of learning environments that stimulate students' active
3.3 registered for this survey item, with 55 per cent of the exploration and solving of problems in an interactive and
students finding GIS to be either helpful or very helpful in integrated manner. GIS was especially valuable in
producing maps. This is due to the flexibility provided by fostering open-ended problem solving skills such as
GIS in generating customisable maps of varying degrees conceptualising problem space, drawing linkages
of complexity that easily meet the specific needs of users. between the elements of the problem structure,
Performing spatial analysis, creating data models and acquiring needed information, drawing inferences from
presenting results in visually rich map representations data pattern observations and formulating solution
enables students to better simulate the task domain and schemas. Since GIS is widely utilised in workplace settings
formulate viable problem resolution plans. Student E outside of academic learning environments such as
highlighted this strength of GIS by noting that “using maps governments, businesses, environment management
to obtain data from different places to look at similarities organisations as a productive problem solving aid,
and differences was helpful”. promoting GIS-enabled classrooms is a positive step
Yet another pedagogical strength of GIS as highlighted towards preparing students to meet the challenges of
by students was the affordance of GIS in facilitating knowledge-based economies of the future. As indicated
investigation of issues from different angles of analytical by Student D in his response, “using GIS to find out more
reasoning and argumentation. This item in the survey about Singapore's ageing population and thinking of
received a mean score of 3.2. Rather than seeking plausible solutions to combat the problems of an ageing
singular solution pathways or fixed, correct answers, GIS society was a positive learning experience”.
supported ill-structured problem solving by allowing Another item in the survey which solicited from students
students to examine a wide gamut of alternatives and an overall mean score of 3.0 was the utility of GIS in
possibilities in deconstructing a problem task. GIS-led enabling inter-disciplinary learning. This finding was rather
curriculum creates open-ended learning environments surprising since GIS is inherently interdisciplinary in outlook
where opportunities are provided for students to move and facilitates the integration of content matter and
away from prescriptive to heuristic approaches of expertise from varied core subjects such as
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mathematics, geography, environmental science, learning discourses in classrooms between students
sociology and so on. GIS promotes both short-term and registered high scores (mean of 3.5). Half of the
long-term transference of skills spanning across a range participant students found GIS to be either highly helpful
of multidisciplinary themes and yet reinforces learning in or adequately helpful in facilitating technology-
each individual disciplinary field through data analysis mediated communications and discussions. Positive
and application. GIS thus has the capability to support feedback was anticipated since group synergy was
cross-disciplinary curricular emphasis. However, the encouraged by assigning students to paired teams in
moderate response feedback from students on the item tackling the GIS-enabled problem solving tasks. Team-
of interdisciplinarity of GIS can be attributed to the fact based engagement with GIS promoted an iterative cycle
that the GIS interventionist training held was conducted in of collaborative learning activities involving peer
the context of a Geography classroom and by a brainstorming, tutoring and interactions in
Geography GIS-trained teacher. Naturally, the focus of conceptualising the elements of the problem space,
the practice tasks administered to students in practicing identifying possible problem solving strategies and
their GIS skills was on Geography subject matter. Hence, reaching the intended goal state through
students might have entertained the misconception that implementation of the most effective action plans. In
GIS is a geography-specific learning tool with limited exploring the efficacy of different GIS mapping
versatility to foster multidisciplinary learning. techniques and applications, students had to engage in
Nearly half of the participant students were of the opinion discursive dialogues and constructive argumentation to
that GIS reliably provides access to comprehensive data tap the expertise and knowledge of their fellow students
sources with the most updated information allowing to model consensual problem solving approaches. The
them to draw the right interpretations and conclusions in collaborative space created by working with GIS through
making correct task-based decisions. Students teamwork helped students to verbalise aloud their
highlighted the effectiveness of GIS software in its ability to individual thinking, support the defensibility of their ideas
extract a vast array of data and overlay or combine it so through evidence-based reasoning, clarify
that the data can be manipulated and analysed with misconceptions and strengthen their conceptual
enhanced visual acuity. The data output can be understanding of geographic principles. GIS-centric
achieved in multiple representational modalities such as peer learning made tacit knowledge concrete through
detailed maps, images or movies to communicate applied practice in real-world contexts and built new
conceptual ideas in relation to a geographic area of knowledge bases seen as the common, collective
interest. The statistical tool in GIS enabling students to use property of team members. In the process of sharing
standard database queries to retrieve and examine data ideas and learning from one another, students became
to accomplish problem solving was an added feature of tolerant of perspectives that might be opposed to their
GIS that students reported to be of valuable utility. The own and appreciate the eclectic diversity of different
relative ease with which a rich body of current information worldviews on issues of mutual concern. Affirming the
can be located in the GIS databases and contextually power of GIS in fostering the development of
applied to make strategic problem solving decisions collaborative synergy amongst students, Student B
honed students' skills of divergent and analogical expressed that working together as a group to tackle the
thinking. Corroborating this piece of analysis, Student P given problems was a positive learning experience for
thus reflected: “GIS provided good access to lots of data her.
and plotting the data in graphs was made much easier”. Critical Thinking Skills
Collaborative Learning Students reported that GIS favourably influences the
The item on the ability of GIS to foster collaborative cultivation of critical thinking mindsets in them (mean of
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3.2). a Mean of 3.2 indicates neutrality!! Incorporating GIS questioning the validity of and reasoning behind
in curricular design in schools and training students to be scientific assumptions, phenomena and axioms will
proficient in using the tools found in GIS software aids in constantly think about possible areas of scientific
the development of spatial thinking and analysis skills in investigation that could be undertaken. This is important
students in a process-oriented manner. This is significant since scientific research is an emergent process where
in light of the report from the National Research Council 'truths' are accepted based upon the legitimacy of
(National Research Council 2006), Learning to Think empiric proofs currently available but amenable to
Spatially: GIS as a Support System in the K-12 Curriculum, further modifications when fresh evidences arise. Hence,
that points to the importance of imbibing spatial thinking it is perplexing that though the mean score obtained for
skills in learners of all ages and the educational potential the item on development of thinking mindset was rather
of GIS in accomplishing this objective. Our study high (3.2), the mean score for the item on pursuit of
determined that GIS technology promotes higher order scientific inquiry was the lowest (2.95) amongst all the
thinking by helping students to understand the items listed in the survey. Since the relationship was
complexities of spatial relationships observed in the expected to be correlated, we suspect this reversal to be
working world and model spatial analysis activities such an aberration rather than a validated finding since errors
as location selection, tracking changes over time and or biases have been known to be associated with surveys
manipulation of variables to study environmental impact. as data collection and analysis instruments in research
Other key cognitive competencies learnt included studies. This irregularity could be attributed to students not
working on scales and units, comparing and evaluating correctly grasping the actual meanings conveyed by the
sizes and shapes, identifying associative patterns and words 'scientific inquiry'. Students might have
integrating new knowledge architectures within mental misinterpreted this term to denote the pursuit of the
models. These thinking skills learnt in a GIS-driven learning formal agenda of scientific investigations and
environment may be transferred and applied in non-GIS experimentations by scientists towards achieving
contexts of everyday problem solving to holistically academic excellence. Thus, students possibly could
examine and solve problems from varied spatial have wrongly deduced this item to be of little relevance
perspectives. Spatial thinking is critical since it entails to them and scored poorly in it since they are only school
analytical inquiry that encourages learners to probe learners and not trained scientists.
phenomena beyond cursory understandings dictated Affective Learning
by the 'where' construct in terms of names and locations The last two items in the survey solicited students' views on
of places in maps to deeper levels of scrutiny driven by how well GIS served to increase their motivation for
questions such as 'why' and 'how'. The favourable learning and challenge them to be more productive
comment by Student N affirmed the positive impact of learners. Surprisingly, contrary to expectations, students'
GIS in informing critical thinking: “It enabled me to think responses to these two items had low mean ratings (3.1
deeper and to do research more easily, using the variety each for both items). This is inconsistent with previous
of resources”. research findings on the use of GIS in educational
The item in the survey on pursuing scientific inquiry settings. For example, Bodzin and Anastasio (2006) and
examines affordances of GIS in furthering students' pursuit Drennon (2005) reported that students were enthusiastic
of scientific inquiry and is closely linked to the previous about learning GIS and educators found integrating GIS
item on scaffolding the development of cognitive skills in in their teaching practices contributed towards
students. A thinking mindset is naturally underpinned by a achieving enhanced educational outcomes. West
profound desire to want to engage in scientific inquiry (2003) also found that GIS-based curriculum increases
and contemplation. One who is inclined to rigorously students' motivation and interest in wanting to learn
i-manager’s Journal on School Educational Technology, Vol. 5 l No. 2 l September - November 2009 23
RESEARCH PAPERS
geographic concepts. The low scores on motivational had to be learnt on how to use them.” (Student M)
levels obtained in our study may not directly per say be Two students suggested that a clearly delineated
reflective of the lack of ability on the part of GIS instructional manual be provided to students in
technology to stimulate and incentivise learning. Rather scaffolding their efforts at becoming conversant with the
the lukewarm response could be attributed to the rushed technology in a more structured manner. This is indeed a
manner in which the GIS training sessions were worthwhile suggestion since a step-by-step manual helps
conducted due to time and scheduling constraints. This to train students to become familiar with GIS mechanisms
might have caused the learning curve to be steep and in a systematic and methodical manner. However, the
made students feel less at ease in learning the features of authors feel that though a written instructional manual
GIS at a comfortable pace. This finding further reinforces would be helpful, it might have the unintentional effect of
the need for educators to systematically plan for and fostering didactic modes of instruction rather than the
implement the instructional design and sequencing of heuristic approach to learning that we hope to promote
GIS training programs. There should be adequate time in using GIS within an educational context. In addition, an
factored in for the training sessions and spaced task- instructional manual might not necessarily alleviate the
oriented practice interspersed in for better applied problem of students having to deal with the complexity of
understanding of the working mechanisms of GIS. the system since GIS as it currently is available is
The following cogitations of students on the quality of their sophisticated and targeted largely at professional users
experiences in interacting with GIS underline the positive in the scientific, business and corporate communities.
influence of GIS in motivating students' learning The complicatedness of GIS and its higher-order
behaviours: cognitive processing demands impeded students'
“It was fun to learn something new but my learning was motivation to want to keenly explore and try out its various
slow due to the software not being easy to use.” a pp l ic at ions with a learning intent. A few students noted
(Student S) that they found it confusing navigating their way through
the cluttered environment of GIS, especially during the
“It was wonderful and stimulating……….” (Student P)
initial phase of introduction. The authors recommend that
“Working on the Singapore Project, the learning process
a simpler and customised version of GIS inclusive of a
was enjoyable, especially the research, presentation
limited number of features and analysis tools specifically
and report.” (Student Q)
catering to the educational needs of students be
Challenges encountered and recommendations
prototyped and evaluated in schools for later production.
A predominant majority of 85 per cent of students
Another important observation the authors as researchers
remarked that the interface of GIS system was not user-
noted in carrying out this study was the need to convince
friendly and they faced difficulties in becoming familiar
teachers themselves on the utility of GIS as an
with the numerous GIS tools. They assessed the GIS
instructional enabler and ensure that they take active
environment to be complex and industry-oriented with
ownership of the GIS project from its onset. Teachers need
many of its multitude of features not being applicable or
to be involved in all the different phases of any GIS-
relevant within a high-school learning context. The
directed educational initiative including needs analysis,
following sample comments extracted from students'
goal setting, task design, project implementation and
feedback highlight this problem:
evaluation so that they feel themselves to be key
“GIS was un-user friendly and had a hard-to-use stakeholders in this endeavour of empowering students to
interface.” (Student A) be independent learners and critical thinkers.
“It had a complicated user interface.” (Student X) Some students reflected that they were not given
“Learning how to use it was difficult as many functions adequate time in training to learn and become
24 i-manager’s Journal on School Educational Technology, Vol. 5 l No. 2 l September - November ‘09