ERIC EJ1097794: Social Self-Efficacy: The Missing Link for Adolescents with Physical Disabilities

2009·0.12 MB·English

by  ERIC

ARTICLES
SOCIAL SELF-EFFICACY: THE MISSING LINK FOR
ADOLESCENTS WITH PHYSICAL DISABILITIES
By
LAURA RADER*
* Professor of Special Education, Department of Educational Leadership and Special Education, The City College of New York.
ABSTRACT
While our knowledge about the cognitive and social components of disability continues to grow, little is known about how
the self specifically develops in adolescents with physical disabilities and whether a specific source is an indicator of self-
determination with this population. Adolescents who have a physical disability may have difficulty progressing through
the stages to become self-determined because they are often viewed as needing protection, which often takes the form
of others making decisions for them. Decision makers may assert that the adolescent with a physical disability is not
capable of making good decisions and the consequences of such decisions are likely to be harmful. Therefore, the
present article explores the difference between adolescents with and without physical disabilities with respect to self-
concept, self-esteem, locus of control, self-efficacy, and self-determination and investigates the self-reported
relationship levels of these indicators to determine if there is one single best predictor of self-determination for
adolescents with and without physical disabilities.
Keywords: Special Education, Physical Disabilities, Adolescents, Self-determination, Self-efficacy, Self-concept, Self-
esteem.
INTRODUCTION their independence, ie, enable students to become more
This article seeks to explore the differences between self-determined (Agran, King-Sears, Wehmeyer &
students with and without physical disabilities with respect Copeland, 2003: Field, Martin, Miller Ward & Wehmeyer,
to self-concept, self-esteem, locus of control, self- 1998: Test, Fowler, Brewer & Wood, 2005). In fact, student-
efficacy and self-determination. It also seeks to explore directed learning strategies have demonstrated
and investigate the relationship levels of these indicators educational efficacy for students with a wide range of
and whether there is one single best predictor of self- learning and adaptive skills and a variety of disabilities,
determination for students with and without physical and have been well validated and supported in the
disabilities. literature (see Algozzine, Browder, Karvonen, Test & Wood,
2001; Mason, Field & Sawilowsky, 2004; Wehmeyer, Agran
Students with Disabilities: What Do We Know?
& Hughes, 2000). Such strategies aim to teach students to
A prominent theme throughout the history of special
set goals for themselves, monitor their performance,
education has been the concern over how special
identify solutions to present or future problems; verbally
education practices influence the social and affective
direct their own behaviors reinforce themselves, or
state of students with disabilities (Gresham & MacMillan,
evaluate their performance (Agran, Hong & Blankenship,
1997). The academic and social failures characterizing
2007). However, educational systems often fail in
the careers of these students are believed to adversely
educating students with disabilities in the area of self-
impact how these students feel about themselves as well
determination (Thoma, Nathanson, Baker & Tamura,
as their attitudes about school and learning.
2002; Wehmeyer & Schalock, 2001).
There is increased attention to the realization that
While our knowledge about the cognitive and social
professionals must maximize the active participation of
components of disability continues to grow, little is known
students with disabilities in decisions and actions in school
about how the self specifically develops in adolescents
that affect their lives, promote their learning and enhance
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with physical disabilities and whether a specific source is outcomes, to hold expectations of effectiveness, to be
an indicator of self-determination with this population. aware of unique strengths and needs, and to establish
Students who have a physical disability may have positive self-concepts in order to be self-determined.
difficulty in progressing through the stages to become Strategies for accessing these skills may play a pivotal role
self-determined because they are often viewed as in the lives of students with physical disabilities.
needing protection, which often takes the form of others Adolescents: What are they thinking?
making decisions for them. Decision makers may assert
Particular interest has focused on adolescents and
that the student with a physical disability is not capable of
physical disabilities. As the definition of this population is
making good decisions and the consequences of such
refined, we are increasingly aware of how little is known
decisions are likely to be harmful. Therefore, as the
about the broader social context and theory of their
reasoning goes, we may need to protect the vulnerable
common identity. The traditional socio-medical model
person from action that can cause him or her either
identifies the limitations associated with physical
physical or emotional harm.
impairment and the negative effects they have on
Additionally, one of the reasons that many students with effected individuals and families, reinforcing the tragic
physical disabilities have not succeeded, once they stereotype of disability. Other explanations reflect more
leave school is that the educational process has not positive aspects of disability identity, but disability identity
prepared students with physical disabilities adequately to needs further illumination. Outside of employment and
become self-determined young people (Wehmeyer, financial statistics, very little is known about the similarities
1995). Self-determination, or student-directed learning, of people with physical disabilities. Understanding how
involves teaching students strategies that allow them to adolescents with physical disabilities perceive themselves
regulate and direct their own behavior (Agran et al., is not only essential in defining the emerging identity of this
2003). In particular, the educational process may limit population but it will also shape and define the
the opportunity for the development of a relationship instructional strategies necessary for this population to
between students' understanding of their disabilities and achieve increased educational outcomes as well.
their global and academic self-concept because it is
By examining the literature on some of the components of
unclear what predictors may be important. As a result,
sense of self, particularly, self -concept, self-esteem, locus
students with physical disabilities may feel their disability
of control, self-efficacy and self-determination, and by
has a persuasive, permanent, negative impact on their
analyzing qualitative data collected from adolescents
lives and their prospects for self-determination may be
with and without disabilities about their journeys of
reduced.
discovery in their personal lives, several conclusions can
Lastly, attitudinal and physical barriers have traditionally be drawn that can be used to prompt further research.
limited opportunities for choice and self-determination. First, each of these constructs is an important tool used by
Eiseman (2007) emphasized the links between self- many individuals with disabilities in counteracting
determination and school completion and suggested overwhelming negative odds imposed by societal
the importance of self-determination interventions such stereotypes and barriers against achieving lives of
as autonomy-supportive instruction and various models fulfillment. Many of those with disabilities whose
of problem solving, goal setting, self-monitoring, and self- perspective on life was more optimistic and hopeful often
evaluation. However, students with physical disabilities cited a combination of the constructs as key ingredients in
may not have the access and opportunities necessary for their happiness. Research examining coping styles and
the development of attitudes and abilities related to self- techniques and adjustment to disability would benefit by
determination. It may be critical for students with physical including these constructs in analyzing the predictors of
disabilities to perceive themselves as having control over outcomes.
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Second, self in connection to others is an integral part of It is possible that adolescents with physical disabilities
sense of self for all individuals with disabilities, yet have learned throughout the years to be the primary
adolescents with physical disabilities often face casual agent in decisions and choices that have an
extraordinary barriers in establishing positive, long-lasting impact on their lives. They reported that there has been an
relationships. Thoma et al. (2002) suggests that it is increased emphasis on promoting opportunities for
important to remember that the achievement of self- adolescents with physical disabilities to learn and utilize
determination requires not only that people with self-determination skills as a part of the educational
disabilities develop their own inner resources, but also that curriculum. As a result, adolescents with physical
society support and respond to them as well. Specifically, disabilities reported that receiving more direct support
how societal and environmental factors that discourage from their family, friends and school was because of this
connection to others impact the concept of the initiative. They reported that they learned to associate this
adolescent with physical disabilities and his/her place in support with greater freedom for the opportunity to control
the world has been the subject of very little research. How their own decisions and choices.
adolescents with physical disabilities see connections to On the other hand, the general perception for
others as a source of fulfillment has also been the subject adolescents without physical disabilities was that they do
of very little discussion. not need direct instruction in strategies for self-
Therefore, the present article explores the difference determination. As a result, they felt as if they were left with
between adolescents with and without physical a more limited support system because they didn't have
disabilities with respect to self-concept, self-esteem, special needs and often perceived their opportunities for
locus of control, self-efficacy, and self-determination. self-determination to be more limited.
Specifically, this qualitative article was designed to Levels of Self-Esteem
collectively report the opinions of a group of 20
The second significant finding between the groups
adolescents with and without physical disabilities (13
focused on the differences between self-esteem.
females and 7 males - age ranges from 13-17) by
Specifically, the results indicated that adolescents without
investigating the self-reported relationship levels of these
physical disabilities reported higher levels of self-esteem
indicators and whether there is one single best predictor
than adolescents with physical disabilities. Since self-
of self-determination for adolescents with and without
esteem is defined as how a person assesses their worth
physical disabilities.
and competencies, in terms of how they think, feel, and
Points to Ponder act (Leary & Downs, 1995) it is likely that the lowered levels
Levels of Self-Determination of self-esteem experienced and reported by adolescents
The results indicated that there was a relationship with physical disabilities was a direct result of their inability
between group status (adolescents with and without to perceive the self positively in domains where they aspire
physical disabilities) and self-determination, locus of to excel and discount the importance of areas in which
control and social self-efficacy. In particular, the results they feel unsuccessful. As a result, they ascribe
showed that while there were no differences in capacity importance to areas that they feel are deficient.
levels for self-determination, there were significant Levels of Social Self-Efficacy
differences between the groups with respect to overall The third significant finding between the two groups was
level of self-determination as well as levels of opportunity that of social self-efficacy. Adolescents with physical
for self-determination. Adolescents with physical disabilities reported higher levels of social self-efficacy
disabilities reported higher levels of self-determination than adolescents without physical disabilities. The results
and more opportunities for self-determination. support Bandura's theory (1986) about self-efficacy. Self-
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efficacy is defined as a judgment of an individual's effectively execute behaviors required to produce a
capabilities to organize and execute courses of action desired outcome.
required to attain designated types of performances. It is Self-Concept Correlation
likely that adolescents with physical disabilities approach
The self-reported data indicates that there was a strong
difficult tasks as challenges to be mastered rather than as
relationship between physical appearance and self-
problems to be avoided and they believe that they can
concept, self-esteem, scholastic achievement,
produce desired effects by their actions. As a result, they
behavioral conduct, romantic appeal and job
set challenging goals and are committed to achieving
competence. Specifically, adolescents with physical
these goals.
disabilities rated their physical appearance as lower than
Adolescents with physical disabilities reported more those without physical disabilities in part because of
support from their school, family and friends and the societal views of body images. This self-reported
beliefs from their support systems regarding their own information is significant for adolescents with physical
abilities and responsibilities to perform certain tasks may disabilities because it leads to many additional self-
cause differential perceptions of their achievements. In concept issues. For example, when ratings of physical
other words, family members, friends and schools who appearance are low, feelings of inferiority occur and
believe in the extent to which they can influence the feelings of romantic appeal will likely be reduced.
adolescent with physical disabilities performance may Similarly, when feelings of physical inadequacy occur,
have better perceptions of the adolescent's abilities and self-doubt for scholastic achievement develops and
therefore may have higher expectations toward the when self-doubt for scholastic achievement develops, it is
adolescent's achievements. Adolescents with physical likely that job competence feeling will be reduced. Thus, a
disabilities reported that parents, friends and schools critical component for self-concept in adolescents with
serve as enabling influences in their lives by providing physical disabilities is the domain of physical
guidance through supportive efficacious action. appearance.
As a result, adolescents with physical disabilities reported Additionally, there was a positive correlation reported
that they internalize these beliefs of higher expectations between self-determination and athletic competence in
and develop higher efficacy expectations. Such beliefs adolescents with physical disabilities. Specifically,
influence aspirations and strength of commitments to adolescents with physical disabilities reported that when
them, the quality of analytic and strategic thinking, level they experience high levels of self-determination, they
of motivation and perseverance in the face of difficulties, have high levels of athletic competence as well. It is likely
and vulnerability to stress and depression (Bandura, 1995, that when an adolescent with a physical disability has
1997: Locke & Latham, 1990: Maddux, 1995: Schwarzer, strong feelings about being the primary causal agent, the
1992: Zimmerman & Schunk, 1989). In other words, they physical limitations that may exist become overpowered
reported that they develop stronger feelings that they can by the feeling of self-determination and athletic
execute a behavior required to produce a desired competence is not impacted.
outcome and the modeling and vicarious learning that
Locus of Control Correlation
occurs from these sources only enhance their efficacy
The reported correlation between internal locus of control
beliefs.
and athletic competence in adolescents with physical
Adolescents without physical disabilities, on the other
disabilities indicated that when athletic competence
hand, reported that they do not have such a defined
goes up, internal locus of control goes down. Adolescents
social support system and do not experience as much
with physical disabilities, who did well with athletic
modeling and vicarious learning as a result. Thus, they
activities, perceived that outside variables must be in
reported that they often do not believe that they can
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control. In other words, because, they know that their have not relied on them as support systems in the past. As
physical disabilities have an impact on athletics, the only a result, they reported that they internalize the information
way they can do well is if the intervention of powerful they receive as disapproval for their physical
others occurs. They reported that they do not believe that appearance. Therefore, rating levels are reduced. When
their own behavior has an impact on athletic the disapproving sources are removed, physical
competence if it is at a high competence level. appearance levels go up.
However, it appears that when prospects for self- Social Self-Efficacy and Self-Determination
determination increase, internal locus of control beliefs A final point for discussion is the relationship of social self-
increase as well in students without physical disabilities. efficacy to self-determination in adolescents with physical
This is explained by suggesting that students without disabilities. It appears that social self-efficacy (overall level
physical disabilities may not have as many identified of self-efficacy) was the single best predictor of self-
sources of support as students with physical disabilities. As determination in this population. Consistent with social
a result, it is likely that their beliefs systems are driven from learning theorists such as Bandura (1977, 1997) it is likely
an internal source. Thus, they reported that when they that adolescents with physical disabilities experience a
believe that they are the primary causal agent in their lives sense of confidence regarding specific tasks. They
(self-determination), it is likely that the source is directly reported that they have the ability to judge their
related to an internal locus of control belief system and is capabilities to organize and execute courses of action
not related to outside sources. required to attain designated types of performances. In
Students without physical disabilities reported that they general, they reported that it is likely, the support systems
are more likely to believe that their own behavior (ability that are in place for adolescents with physical disabilities
and effort) result in outcomes. Essentially then, this would create an environment that fosters the belief that
population has an internal motive that leads to the they can execute a desired behavior. They indicate that
expectation that their own actions are likely to bring about the more experiences they have with the sources of
change. Similarly, because this population reported that information needed for self-efficacy (performance
they believe their own actions bring about change, it is accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal
probable that they would also perceive that they could persuasions and emotional arousal) the more likely they
successfully execute behaviors required to produce an will see their situations and environment as manageable.
expected outcome. Unlike the population of adolescents Adolescents with physical disabilities reported that
with physical disabilities, adolescents without physical support systems that they have and trust (family, friends,
disabilities report that their perceptions of self-concept do school, medical) seem to continuously work together to
not vary across domains and there is no one domain that enhance their experiences with the sources of information
contributes to higher levels of self-concept. needed for self-efficacy. Observing the successful
However, adolescents without physical disabilities performances of people from their support systems,
reported a negative correlation between social self- without adverse consequences (vicarious experiences)
efficacy and physical appearance. This is explained by and experiencing the verbal persuasion from the sources
suggesting that adolescents without physical disabilities of support is reportedly enhances their feelings of self-
use the sources of information for self-efficacy as efficacy. They reported that the sources of support are
negative. In other words, outside sources associated with likely to reduce their level of emotional arousal and when
self-efficacy (vicarious experiences and verbal emotional arousal is reduced, experiences of success
persuasion) do not contribute to their overall level of (performance accomplishments) are likely to increase.
competence for physical appearance. Instead, they When performance accomplishments and vicarious
may react negatively to these sources because they
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learning experiences increase and emotional arousal that for a adolescent with physical disabilities, the
decreases, adolescents with physical disabilities reported absence of strong interest in a given career area is
that they begin to act as the primary causal agent primarily the result of a lack of confidence rather than a
making choices and decisions regarding quality of life lack of aptitude and, on the basis of further assessment,
free from undue external influence or interference (self- that certain types of experiences could be helpful in
determination). It is also reported that the more remedying this situation. It is when these situations are
experienced adolescents with physical disabilities have remedied that adolescents with physical disabilities feel
with these sources, the more likely they will act as if they are the primary causal agent in their lives (self-
autonomously, become self-regulated, initiate responses determination).
to events to act in a psychologically empowered manner For adolescents in particular, support for higher-level
and act in a self-realizing manner (Wehmeyer, in press, conceptualizations of those self-attributes perceived as
Wehmeyer, Kelchner & Richards, 1994). People who are contradictory or conflictual may be achieved by
self-determined act on the basis of beliefs that they have providing more integrative personal constructs. Further
the capacity and opportunity to perform the behaviors encouragement of attributions of appropriateness or
needed to influence outcomes in their environment flexibility for characteristics viewed as contradictory, as
(Palmer & Wehmeyer, 1998). The differences in the well as the construction of personal narratives that can
reported levels of opportunity between the two groups give meaning to multiplicity, should also serve to enhance
and the environmental differences may affect these feelings of self-understanding and self-worth.
characteristics in such a way that the relative self-
Instruction should focus on reducing the discrepancy
determination of each group may likely vary.
between perceived incompetencies or inadequacy and
Implications for Instruction the importance of success in those arenas. Fostering a
Turning to applied implications, the present findings focus on the areas in which the student does display
indicate that self-efficacy beliefs are important to competencies, while discounting those areas in which the
adolescents with physical disabilities. As a result, student is less adequate should be beneficial. Similarly,
traditional approaches to career development instruction should focus on the assessment of a student's
emphasizing aptitudes and objective skills as well as belief system with regard to the potential for change,
standardized assessments, those required by where efforts are directed toward encouraging the belief
accountability measures in No Child Left Behind (NCLB) that most positive self-evaluations can and should be
and Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), to achieved. Instruction should focus on scaffolding an
the relative exclusion of more attitudinal influences, such understanding of the actual origins of their negative self-
as efficacy beliefs, may prove to be inadequate when perception, which should aid the student to gain insight
applied to this population. The present findings suggest, into antecedents, and in turn promote more positive self-
however, merits of designing standardized assessments, evaluations.
career assessments and exploration activities that are Finally, the most important steps that can be taken to
intended to directly foster career related self-efficacy promote self-determination may not necessarily involve
beliefs. In pursuing this objective, specific increasing students' skill levels, but instead should focus on
accommodations could be made to address different changing the ways in which instruction is provided and the
types of physical disabilities. Information concerning self- educational program is conducted. As a result,
efficacy beliefs within such an approach could also be educators in both regular and special education should
integrated with that obtained from more traditional, not only continue to teach students the skills they need to
objective assessments of aptitude in ways that facilitate take advantage of the opportunities in their lives but
the career exploration process. It might be determined should perhaps address the limitations and barriers in
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systems that contribute to less positive self-determination [4]. Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying
outcomes as well. theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84,
Conclusion 191-215.
Although the research on self-determination has been [5]. Bandura A. (1986). Social foundation of thought and
extensive, the focus on the role of self-efficacy as a action: A social cognitive theory. Englewoods Cliffs, NJ:
variable still remains with many unanswered questions. Prentice-Hall.
The study appears to be the beginning of an analysis of [6]. Bandura, A. (1995). Self-efficacy in changing
the relationship of self-efficacy to self-determination. The societies. New York: Cambridge University Press.
study extends the research on self-concept, self-esteem, [7]. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of
locus of control, self-efficacy and self-determination and control. W.H. Freeman and Company, New York.
their relevancy to instruction.
[8]. Eisenman, L. T. (2007). Self-determination
Given the theoretical importance of the social influence interventions: Building a foundation for school
on student outcomes, it is important that research begin completion. Remedial and Special Education, 28(1), 2-8.
to concentrate on finding effective ways to increase
[9]. Field, S., Martin, J., Millier, R., Ward, M., & Wehmeyer,
some self-efficacy for all sources of support systems.
M. (1998). Self-determination for persons with disabilities:
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focus on investigating how to increase and vary the levels
[10]. Gresham, F.M. & MacMillan, D.L. (1997). Social
of support for students with physical disabilities.
competence and affective characteristics of students
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students with physical disabilities have adequate levels of 377-415.
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[11]. Leary, M.R., & Downs, D.L. (1995). Interpersonal
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functions of the self-esteem motive: The self-esteem
as this population transitions from school to work or
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Dr. Rader is an Assistant Professor of Special Education in the Department of Educational Leadership and Special Education with The City College of
New York. She teaches graduate level courses in differentiated instruction and literacy instruction for struggling learners. She is also the Program
Head for the Special Education Graduate program. Prior to her roles as Assistant Professor and Program Head, she served as a consultant with the
State Department of Education, as a teacher for students with special needs and an instructional associate (Assistant Principal) of an elementary
school. Her areas of interest include universal design for learning, assistive technology, inclusion self-determination and differentiated instruction.
8 i-manager’s Journal on Educational Psychology, Vol. 2 (cid:108) No. 4 (cid:108) February - April 2009