ERIC EJ1095217: The First Step Is the Hardest: Finding Connections in Media Literacy Education

2009·0.3 MB·English

by  ERIC

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The National Association for Media Literacy Education’s
Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
The First Step is the Hardest:
Finding Connections in Media Literacy Education
Paul Mihailidis
Department of Journalism, Media Studies & Public Relations, Hofstra University, Hempstead, NY, USA
Abstract
Through a series of focus groups, this study explores how students, at the conclusion of a university-level media
literacy course, see media’s necessary role in democratic society. It is a narrative inspired by the core belief of
the media literacy discipline that if people are effectively taught the critical skills to access, evaluate, analyze,
and produce media1 they will better understand media’s roles and responsibilities in civic life. Initial findings
show that while media literacy may indeed enable for critical analysis skills, it carries the potential to breed
cynical outcomes if not taught in a holistic manner.
Keywords: Media Education, News Media, Critical Thinking, Media Literacy, Focus Groups
Introduction – Media Literacy and Healthy Skepti- ate learning outcomes. Media literate individuals, it
cism is often purported, should be open to different ideas,
In, UnSpun: Finding Facts in a World of demand evidence for certain claims, and approach
Disinformation, Brooks Jackson and Kathleen Hall information with a keen sense of interest, indepen-
Jamieson caution their readers to “be skeptical, but not dence, and awareness. In this sense, if media literacy
cynical when consuming media”: is to enable a healthy skepticism towards media and
The skeptic demands evidence, and information, it must not only teach the skills of critical
rightly so. The cynic assumes that what analysis, but also teach how those skills are purposed
he or she is being told is false. Cyni- around modes of general inquiry.5 This centers on
cism is a form of gullibility—the cynic making media literacy purposive by highlighting the
rejects facts without evidence, just as connections between media analysis and a nuanced
the naïve person accepts facts without understanding of media’s role in community, civic life,
evidence. And deception born of cyni- and democratic society.6
cism can be just as costly or potentially Despite the general aim to enable such learning
as dangerous to health and well-being outcomes, few inquiries on any level of education have
as any other form of deception.2 explored how such outcomes are attained, and what
attributes “media literate” individuals should embody.7
The promotion of healthy skepticism—consis- Exploring the outcomes of media literacy initiatives
tent inquiry concerning how media portrays cultural, can offer insight as to how students express their
social, political and economic issues,3 coupled with a thoughts about media and its role in their lives at the
general understanding of the media’s role in civil and conclusion of a media literacy lesson, course, or cur-
democratic society4—is at the center of media liter- riculum. Furthermore, data on media literacy learning
experiences may also help educators better understand
*The data presented in this study is part of a larger multi-method the connections between media literacy and attitudes
study combining a quasi-experiment with focus group sessions.
towards the media environment in an information age.
That study is published in full as a dissertation by the University

of Maryland, and excerpts of the study will also apprear in other
reports and academic journals.
54 P. Mihailidis / Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
This study explores how students, at the con- Citizens, Knowledge, and the Information Environ-
clusion of a university-level media literacy course, see ment demonstrated that education was a strong predic-
media’s necessary role in democratic society. It is a tor of political knowledge.15 This result was even more
narrative inspired by the core belief of the media lit- apparent when the political issue had greater exposure
eracy discipline that if people are effectively taught the in the mass media. Such connections further highlight
critical skills to access, evaluate, analyze, and produce a need for education that addresses media’s role in
media8 they will better understand media’s roles and civic democracies that exist in information societies.
responsibilities in civic life. What are students learn- Studies by McDevitt and Kiousis in 200516 and
ing about media’s role in society? About media’s role Kiuosis, McDevitt and Wu in 200617 found that the
in a democracy? How effectively are students learning development of political attitudes in adolescents could
about the complexities of the media landscape? Such be affected by education. Using the 2002 US elections
questions serve as an entry point to explore how stu- as their base, the authors found that various curricu-
dents, at the conclusion of a media literacy course, are lar programs that include media can actively better
able to make the connections between media, citizen- youths’ civic socialization and awareness.
ship, and democracy. At the same time, a growing number of studies
are also focusing on the outcomes of media literacy
Making Connections in a Media Literacy Curricu- education in the classroom. A 2006 study by Erica
lum Scharrer, Associate Professor of Communication at the
In 2000, Harvard Sociologist Robert Putnam University of Massachusetts - Amherst, posited that
published his seminal text Bowling Alone: The Col- students would attain critical thinking abilities through
lapse and Revival of American Community, in which “demonstrating the ability to analyze the degree of
he wrote: “at an accelerating pace throughout the social responsibility in media as they express their at-
century, the electronic transmission of news and en- titudes regarding how television should show violence
tertainment changed virtually all features of American and about media regulation.”18 Scharrer’s results sug-
life.”9 Putnam’s treatise exposed media, specifically gested that after a media literacy experience, students
the television, as a harbinger for the changing notion were more critically inclined to ask the “right” ques-
of community. Putnam, while lamenting television as tions about why violence is shown on the television.
“bad for both individualized and collective civic en- A 2008 study from Duran et al. titled Holistic Media
gagement,”10 clearly exposed the connections between Education found that a college level media literacy
greater time spent with information and the changing course did heighten its students’ awareness of media’s
ways in which individuals spend time with family and role in civil society as compared to a control group.19
in the community. Past studies by Hobbs and Frost (2003),20 Quin and
Scholars11 have built on Putnam’s work to offer McMahon (1992),21 and Arke (2005)22 also showed
extensive prose on the media’s socializing effects for positive correlation between media education and
youth, commonly replacing more traditional pillars of heightened abilities to critically analyze media mes-
the community, such as family, church, and school.12 sages.
There is little doubt that in this present climate, youth As evidenced in past studies and curricular
of all ages are spending more time with media. A 2005 initiatives, media education has often made its priority
Kaiser Family study noted that the average young to teach students to be critical thinkers of the media,23
adult (18-30) spends approximately 6.5 hours per day to analyze the contours of media messages, and to
with media outside of the classroom.13 A more recent deconstruct media messages in the search for intent,
study released by the Council for Research Excel- perspective, and point of view. The tangible outcomes
lence found that the average American is exposed to of such an inquiry can be seen in how students de-
“screens” on average 8.5 hours of any given day.14 code messages, find angles and frames, and see com-
With the fast growing presence of media in mon practices of information manipulation. What
everyday life, media literacy is increasingly seen is perhaps more difficult to notice are the narrative
as the educational response for an information age. outcomes of a media literacy curriculum. What does a
Scholars have recently begun to explore the connec- media literate student sound like? How do they under-
tions between media education, civic knowledge, and stand the connections between media and democracy?
democratic outcomes. A 2006 study by Jerit et al. titled In what ways are there opinions and values influenced
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P. Mihailidis / Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
by critical media inquiry? These questions, while dif- vibrant, diverse, and thoughtful discussions of media’s
ficult to quantify, are essential to experiential media role in society and democracy.
literacy learning outcomes.
If students can critically analyze media mes- The Sessions
sages without being able to see the larger connections Three focus groups were conducted at the
between the message, their lives, and their society, conclusion of the Journalism 175: Media Literacy
then what is the point of approaching the message in (J175) course offered by the University of Maryland’s
the first place? College of Journalism. Two sessions (n=10, n=8)
Students must be able to apply newly gained were conducted with students from J175 and a third
knowledge to their everyday habits of inquiry. Empha- focus group (n=9) was conducted with students from
sizing this outcome can help students make the neces- the education group consisting of students from the
sary connections between media and community in University of Maryland’s College of Education, who
current hyper-media societies. The following inquiry were predominantly freshmen and sophomores en-
explores university student dispositions, at the conclu- rolled in the Education Human Development course,
sion of a media literacy course, on the connections be- EDHD230: Human Development and Societal Insti-
tween media, citizenship, and civil society. The study tutions. None of these students had taken the J175
is not meant to provide definitive data on best prac- course, or any courses in journalism and/or com-
tices or outcomes of a media literacy curriculum, but munication studies. Conducting focus group sessions
rather provides a running narrative of student opinions with separate J175 and education groups allowed for
on media literacy as a bridge to a more holistic under- qualitative comparisons of the values, beliefs and
standing of media’s role in their lives, communities, general assumptions between students enrolled in the
and democracy. J175 course and those who were not.
The researcher facilitated the focus group dis-
Methodology24 cussions. As the researcher did not teach in J175, this
This study employed three focus groups to had no impact on the dynamic of the session. Further-
explore student attitudes towards media. The focus more, the focus groups did not impact the grades of
group has served as an effective research tool for the students, as they were offered as extracurricular
over fifty years, and more predominantly in academia activities. Participants were offered a small financial
over the last twenty years.25 A focus group is broadly compensation for their participation in the discus-
defined as “a group of individuals selected and assem- sions. This limited self-selection bias, in that grades
bled by researchers to discuss and comment on, from and interest in the topic were not motivating factors in
personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the student participation.
research.”26 The main aim of the focus group is to at- The focus group sessions were structured in
tain an open level of interaction between participants, two parts. The first 45 minutes of the discussions dealt
drawing upon their beliefs, attitudes, feelings, and with media’s role in society, specifically addressing
experiences.27 This is what differentiates the dynamic relevance, credibility, and students as news media
of the focus group from the interview, ethnography, or consumers (see table 1). This part of the discussion
participant observation. entailed the bulk of the students’ views on the media
Main limitations of focus group research industry, its functions, patterns, and influences. The
include biases, difficulty in distinguishing between last fifteen minutes of each session were devoted to
individual and group views, difficulty in making media literacy. These concluding discussions centered
generalizations, difficulty of analysis and interpreta- on the possible influences of formal education about
tion of results.28 These characteristics were minimized media and aimed to explore what students personally
through careful and meticulous transcription and took away from the J175 course beyond critical media
analysis. Furthermore, the group sessions for this analysis skills.
study applied a level of “produced informality.”29 The
moderator created a relaxed atmosphere in which the
participants were encouraged, through informality, to
participate in an open and free manner.30 This enabled
56 P. Mihailidis / Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
Table 1 – Focus Group Protocol ments, which are in the form of small papers, oral
Relevance and Credibility (45 minutes) presentations, media critiques, group work, quizzes,
Relevance: Do media do a good job in providing and so on. In addition, students take a mid-term and
relevant information for Americans? final exam. Both exams combine essay reflections on
Credibility: How credible, unbiased, and neutral current media issues with real time critique of news
are media in the United States? clips, and short answers that cover theory and terms.
Student attention to news media: How much time Students are taught critical media analysis skills, cen-
do you spend with news? Do you think it has af- tering predominantly on comprehension (summarize
fected your views, opinions, outlooks? the message), evaluation (how does the message in-
Media Literacy (15 minutes) form the topic? and what you think about the topic?),
What do you think being a media literate person and analysis (Who is the message aimed at? What is
entails? Considering how much time you spend omitted from the message?). These terms and ques-
with media, do you think learning about media tions were stressed while exploring various content.
functions and practices would affect how you Week-by-week, J175 covers general trends
interact with media? in media (business & ownership, history, the First
Amendment), media themes (global news, politics,
The Course gender, race/ethnicity, sex), and specific “mediums”
Journalism 175: Media Literacy was first (print, radio, television, the Internet). The course
offered in the fall of 2004, and soon became one of approached these topics in a critical way, exposing
the more over-enrolled courses offered at the Univer- students to the ubiquity of advertising, body image,
sity of Maryland. J175 is a CORE Interdisciplinary media violence, war coverage, propaganda, public
& Emerging Issues Course/CORE Diversity Course, relations, political campaigns, and so on. The course
meaning that the course satisfies a core general un- also attempts to infuse in the students an understand-
dergraduate degree requirement. The course overview ing of their use of media and be more aware media
states that J175 provides: consumers.
An analysis of the information, values During Fall 2006, when this study was con-
and underlying messages conveyed ducted, 170 students were enrolled in the Journalism
via television, newspapers, the Inter- 175: Media Literacy (J175) course. These students
net, magazines, radio and film. [J175: were predominantly freshmen (46%) and sophomores
Media Literacy] examines the accuracy (26%), with 53% females. All but five of the students
of those messages and explores how were between 18-24 years of age. All students, except
media shape views of politics, culture those younger than 18 years of age, were offered par-
and society (Philip Merrill College of ticipation in focus groups.
Journalism).31 The researcher of this study was involved in
Dr. Susan Moeller, Associate Professor at the Philip the creation of the course in 2004, which included
Merrill College of Journalism and the School of Pub- elements encapsulated in the traditional definition of
lic Policy at the University of Maryland, is the lead media literacy—critical skills to access, evaluate, ana-
professor of the J175 course. Professor Moeller has lyze, and produce media.32 The course was also built
taught J175 since its inception in 2004. Additionally after a surveying other media literacy course syllabi
three-to-five teaching assistants each teach multiple in U.S. universities. J175 students were expected to
discussion sections once a week.* gain the critical media analysis skills to be considered
The course follows a lecture/discussion for- “media literate.” This particular inquiry grew from
mat. Professor Moeller lectures once a week to all 170 a curiosity about whether or not the skills taught in
students, and then students attend discussion sections the course translated into an overall awareness and
once a week, which max out at 25 students per ses- engagement with media’s role in civil and democratic
sion. Students are asked to complete weekly assign- society.
* This number has fluctuated based on class enrollment and
available assistantships. During the data collection for this dis-
sertation, there were four teaching assistants assigned to the J175
course.
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Focus Group Narrative: Hard Steps to Healthy my day a whole lot better...or, like, felt
Dialogue informed about something relevant.”
The J175 focus groups and the education focus
group elicited interesting dialogue.33 Many similari- —Student, J175: Media Literacy course
ties and differences were apparent in their discussions.
Perhaps the most evident difference was the nega- Media relevance is a qualitative construct, sub-
tivity with which the J175 groups discussed media. ject to a variety of definitions. “Relevance,” as used
Throughout both J175 focus groups, the students in this study, is meant to speak to American media’s
uniformly displayed a resistance towards media that role in providing its public with a diverse and wide
bordered on cynicism. Their discussions were sub- spectrum of information from which they can make
sumed with criticism and distrust of media, and an air informed decisions. In the focus group discussions,
of superiority over what they deemed was the constant students were asked about the relevance of media in
manipulation techniques of the media industry. society as a subset of how they viewed media in a
Reasons for the J175 groups’ negative respons- broad and general sense. This topic was intended both
es can range from their heightened critical inquiry into to allow them to critically think about media’s role in
media through the J175 course to a general cynicism society, and to attempt to locate their opinions on how
towards media functions by younger generations. Nev- media influences values and viewpoints concerning
ertheless, these sessions evoked interesting questions civic issues.
concerning the negativity displayed by J175 students. The general consensus among both J175
Did the media literacy curriculum reinforce and exag- groups and the education group was that media outlets
gerate cynical and pessimistic ideas already instilled rarely provided relevant information. “News outlets
in students’ minds? Were the students simply unable don’t want to show you things that make the country
to connect the skills they attained with a substantive look bad or themselves look bad,” said a student from
understanding of media’s democratic and social roles? the J175 course. This was followed by another student
Or is the critical first step to becoming media literate a stating: “I think the American people are just settling
process that includes negativity, cynicism, and resis- for what’s on the television...they aren’t going to dig
tance? deep to find more information if they aren’t satisfied.
Such attitudes towards media could have been They may complain and say, oh this isn’t what’s real,
formed by inadequacies in the way that media literacy but they aren’t going to go investigate it more. Every-
is taught, too often focusing on content alone and not body does this...so it doesn’t really matter.” Another
on audience and reception. Or such attitudes could student then stated: “I think media companies are
represent a critical first step in the civic socialization concerned about losing viewers and money. They feel
of young adults trying to make sense of what is a com- they can’t make everyone happy, so they just pick a
plex and often paradoxical environment. side and topics and gain those viewers.”
The discussions on relevance predominantly
Topic One: Media’s Role in Democratic Society focused on the business of the media industry, “real”
“All news is biased news.” —Student, J175: Media versus entertainment news, and general public dis-
Literacy course interest towards news media. During the discussion,
At the beginning of each focus group, the stu- a trend developed: the J175 group discussions grew
dents briefly introduced themselves and spoke about more negative towards media. The education group
their personal media use. The discussions then shifted discussion, meanwhile, was less substantive but also
to media’s role in society. This part of the session was less pessimistic.
introduced through a brief overview by the moderator, Business and politics
followed by substantive discussion revolving around Students from both groups mentioned media’s
relevance, credibility, and attention to news media. profit motives and political connections when discuss-
ing how and to what extent media cover events. The
Relevance students continuously referred to the idea that profit
and business models ruled news production to an end.
I’ve never turned on the news and been This underlying theme quickly became a strong pre-
like, wow, glad I watched that, made dictor of the overall negativity expressed in the group
58 P. Mihailidis / Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
discussions. Remarked one student from the J175 program to do so. Understanding such media work-
group: “America is a capitalist system, which is all ings and their rationale is a key to understanding the
about getting a better living status...They [the media nuances of media and their intended effects. This
industry] make more money the more people watch. type of acknowledgement and acceptance was rarely
It’s not really what people need to watch or know, it’s noticed in the focus group discussions. Students chose
what they are going to watch that matters.” The media to simply state profit motives as negative influences
industry is not exempt from profit models and motives on media, but rarely did they express why and to what
in a free market society. In this light the student was effect these practices were put into place. Even after
entirely correct. What was interesting, however, was additional prodding by the moderator, the students
the tone with which he expressed a rather dreary train responded by stating more examples of profit motives
of thought. In discussing media relevance, this par- in the media industry to justify their outlooks.
ticipant seemed content with the idea that relevance When the conversations shifted from profits
is not on the radar of mass media outlets.34 This may to politics, students from J175 groups and the educa-
indeed be the case, and perhaps this view is the be- tion group used politics to discredit relevance in media
ginning of a media literate understanding of media coverage and news reporting. Said one student from
industries. However, without further developing this the J175 course about the political relevance of news
line of thought, students may be left with incomplete coverage:
understandings of a complex issue at the conclusion of I have this theory that the media is
a media literacy course. much more about money and control
The education group discussion echoed the than anything. For example, they will
J175 groups’ thoughts on profit motives in media: tell you about local shootings to scare
“But sensational headlines grab people’s attention... you and keep order, to vote for the
They [television news media] will wait until the end to representative who will fight crime.
show the really important stuff,” said one participant, And not care about Darfur, because
“The stories will be placed as actual news to get our that means we have to care more about
attention, we’ll see other stories about ‘real’ issues. foreign diplomacy and cut back on
Or they will throw the ‘other’ stories in between ‘real’ military spending and stuff.
stories to grab peoples’ attention.” Added another A student immediately followed this statement by
student, “even CNN is now getting into the entertain- asking the group if they had “ever visited a web site
ment news, so that people will start to pick it up: Brit- that lists the top 100 media companies in the U.S. and
tany Spears, Brangelina, Kramer, they need to make how they are connected to politicians. The majority of
money and keep audiences.” Both groups’ discussions the largest corporations are connected.”35 While such
were defeatist in a sense. There was little reflection or ideas and opinions should be part of any discussion
critical discussion about why profits were so central on media relevance and news selection, they should
to media practices. One student from the education not be the dominant and lone point of a discussion on
group, recapping a recent interaction with news me- media’s relevance to society.
dia, stated: One particular discussion thread by a J175
Last week I watched news for an hour group began with intelligent and sharp introspection.
and a half, because before each com- Said one student: “I mean, I do care, but I think people
mercial they showed a story about a are ostracized because of politics getting in the way
deer who jumped through a window of news. CNN probably didn’t support Kevin Sites [of
and attacked a family. And I watched Yahoo News’s Kevin Sites in the Hot Zone]36 because
traffic and weather and local news and of the political implications.” Another student fol-
stuff I really don’t care about...just to lowed this by stating:
get to the end and see the story about I mean it’s just that the media is owned
the deer. They hooked me in. It may not by so few. I think its like six corpora-
be right, but it’s smart. tions or something. So when Disney
This student described a process used by television tells you something, you’re going to
news media to keep her attention. She was cognizant hear it on all their media stations. And
of this action, and admitted that it was “smart” for the the majority of the news stations don’t
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want to hire Kevin Sites, who’s going to in agreement. Perhaps the education group did not
film people shooting people, and news touch upon the subject of politics because they were
that people may really care about. not exposed to such critical sensitization to media as
In this short conversation, participants from the me- students from J175. This idea may hold merit as a key
dia literacy class engaged in analytical critique and indicator for the difference in the scope of discussion,
thoughtful discussions. In discussing the global report- and negativity expressed between the J175 and educa-
ing of journalist Kevin Sites, students began to ques- tion groups.
tion why such journalism was rarely if ever part of the News vs. entertainment
mainstream media. They pondered why this type of As the conversation shifted from business and
investigative reporting was reserved for niche mar- politics to entertainment in news coverage, the J175
kets and highly specialized audiences. The students, students spoke primarily about what they correctly
however, quickly reverted back to acrimony towards perceived to be increasingly blurred lines between
the media-political complex. In the midst of the Kevin news and entertainment. Said one J175 student:
Sites discussion, one student remarked: “I think the I think the coverage is irrelevant and
government holds back a lot of information, because almost pathetic. Things like Darfur get
of fear of public reaction.” Another student echoed overshadowed by topics like OJ Simp-
this idea: “I think our government knows a lot more son, Dick Cheney shooting his friends,
about Iraq than they tell us. I think the government or Clinton/Lewinsky. I mean, no one
has a foot in every major corporation out there. Media knows about Kosovo, but everyone
corporations.” knows who Monica Lewinsky is. That’s
While comments on Iraq and the media-politi- what the news talks about every hour
cal-economic nexus may have much truth to them, of every day. You can’t watch an hour
the context within which they were stated was more of CNN without them covering enter-
impulsive and rash than thoughtful and reflective. tainment news. And people don’t care,
Students did not speak about the complex but neces- that’s what they want.
sary relationship between the media and the govern- News is largely based on proximity. That Monica
ment but instead, it seemed, fell back on the idea that Lewinsky is covered in light of her relations with the
media were corrupt and only out to make money. They former President of the United States is neither nega-
displayed a confidence in their cynicism—as if media tive nor irrelevant. However, the extent and scope of
literacy had provided them the critical skills to effec- this coverage is what should be questioned. While
tively defend themselves against media’s manipula- this student’s comment is an accurate reflection of
tions and misrepresentations. news practices today, his/her inclusion of “coverage is
Such ideas could simply be a product of pathetic and irrelevant...people don’t care...and that’s
youthfulness, or signal the beginning of a nuanced what they want” is somewhat reflective of a natural
understanding of media’s role in politics and business. disposition to lay blame somewhere rather than ask
Within this train of thought, there remains room for critical questions.
discussion to move beyond criticism and towards a The J175 group students also alluded, ac-
more substantive discussion. Ensuring that discussions curately, to the idea that entertainment stories were
move beyond criticism needs to be an essential com- used to offset depressing coverage. “I think real news
ponent of any media literacy curriculum. is pretty depressing. Everyone wants to turn towards
The education group discussion approached some type of entertainment just to take their mind off
the role of politics in media in brief, and with less of all this depressing news,” said one student in re-
negativity. “You can have smart guides for news me- sponse to the extensive coverage of Britney Spears on
dia, but there is always going to be the money and the major network news outlets. Another student followed
corporations, and you won’t be able to separate those this by abruptly stating, “Mainstream news is, like, so
things. Politics and religion are always going to be harsh and depressing.”
involved, but we know that, so we have to see it... [em- Generally, news is often “harsh and depress-
phasis added],” stated one participant. The conversa- ing.” The J175 group students were not wrong in
tion shifted after this comment, but its weight was felt emphasizing this idea. Nor were they wrong in allud-
in the classroom, as many of the participants nodded ing to possible reasons for the growth in entertainment
60 P. Mihailidis / Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
news. This is perhaps a positive sign of early engage- if this was the case, criticism alone should not be the
ment with critical inquiry into media messages. What final outcome of media discussions after acknowl-
was absent from this discussion was dialog about why edgement.
this exists, about the possible reasons for the depress-
ing nature of news, and how such coverage influences Credibility
the American public—fundamental outcomes of me-
dia literacy. Even when prodded by the moderator as I personally always try to assume that
to why news was so harsh and depressing, and often journalists are going to try and tell us
sensationalized, the students fell back on simple asser- the truth because of their code of eth-
tions. ics, but I also understand that people
On speaking about entertainment-driven sto- are people. So they’re going to have
ries in news media, students from the education group biases whether they try as hard as they
were also critical. Remarked one student: “I don’t can to be fair or not.
think it’s [entertainment] relevant for us to know, but —Student, education group
it’s relevant to get our attention, and keep it.” This
comment is not very different from the J175 student’s In all three focus groups, after discussing me-
comment about entertainment. However, it signaled dia’s relevance in delivering information to the public,
acknowledgement of the techniques used by main- the conversation shifted to credibility in media cover-
stream media to grasp audience attention—part of the age. The conversation began not through the modera-
critical understanding process. tor asking, “How biased is the media industry?” but
When discussing whether news/entertainment by probing students about the depth and credibility of
blurring was more positive or negative, the following media coverage of news.
small exchange ensued in the education group discus- “I just think everything has a strong bias. I
sion: believe that a lot of things we hear today are just what
Student1: I think it’s a common thing. the government wants us to hear. Everyone talks about
Student2: I think it’s sad that it has to happen, the propaganda that Hitler used, and I’m not compar-
but its smart. ing anything to Hitler, but I think this government
Student3: I think it depends on what the other uses as much if not more propaganda as Hitler,” said a
news is...The news comes on, and a liquor J175 group participant. Comparing current U.S. media
store is robbed, and the cops shot someone, systems to Hitler is not unfounded in terms of political
and someone fell off the bridge. What is this? media use and propaganda. Such a comparison could
How come the only news is about bad things? even be used to elicit substantive learning experiences.
Is there no happy news? Is there nothing good However, as was the case with the earlier discussions,
you can put on TV? the student made this comparison the end of his point.
Student2: Which is why entertainment news He had no larger implications for this comparison. Nor
that you can joke about may be a good thing. did he attempt to reflect on what it meant for media in
Student3: I think on the morning news they al- present day America. No other students commented on
ways throw in the happier stories...like a single or refuted this claim, even when asked by the modera-
mother of ten wins the lottery! Something good tor to elaborate.
to start your day, maybe? “It’s all bias, some networks are more subtle,
Student2: Is that because nothing bad has hap- but I still think it’s all biased. Fox news is less bi-
pened yet today? ased...” said one student just before the Hitler com-
Through the questioning of news choices, the students ment. Another student disputed the assertion about
began to offer positive examples of “good” news prac- Fox News: “Bill O’Reilly is ridiculous. Everything he
tices to counter his negative claims. This was a key says is completely biased.” These comments began to
difference between the J175 and education groups. reveal a trend in the discussions: the students’ distrust
Perhaps the J175 group, already sensitized to basic of media became a defense mechanism. Are students
media criticism, did not feel the need to acknowledge taught critical media skills to understand what Fox
such basic media techniques as attention getting, and News’s “Fair and Balanced” motto is attempting to
so they chose to focus mainly on criticism. But even
61
P. Mihailidis / Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
achieve? Or are they simply taught about the contra- in arguably their most critical thought and analytic
diction in terms of Fox’s slogan and impending biased discussion of the entire session while speaking of an
points of view? abandonment of viewing and believing network news.
Partisan news networks have also significantly As one student stated, her “trick” is to see all sides:
contributed to the evolution of so-called “fake” news37 I look at Jon Stewart like I look at
shows—such as Stephen Colbert’s The Colbert Report Hardball on MSNBC. I think most talk
and Jon Stewart’s The Daily Show with Jon Stewart— shows, even though they don’t like to
becoming accepted as safe havens for younger genera- admit it, are biased to the right, and
tions to receive news. Stated a J175 group student: Jon Stewart is biased to the left. So I
Stephen Colbert is sarcastic, not bi- think if you watch both, you will get a
ased. And Jon Stewart knows what he’s pretty good idea of both sides.
talking about. He’s, in my opinion, one This discussion thread reflected an ability to engage
of the most intelligent people in televi- in strong critical discussion about media. Students
sion. He has his opinions, it’s just that did seem reflective and understanding about the role
he happens to be a comedian and does of such shows in the U.S. media climate for younger
it in a funny way. That’s how he wants audiences.
to do it. He doesn’t like the Six O’clock Second, it is apparent that most students had
news, or watching Katie Couric tell little faith or trust in news networks, believing that
you about Iraq. because they are either politically or financially mo-
These two programs constantly shift between “fake” tivated, they do little to provide relevant and credible
news/comedy and reporting of news events. The evo- information. This is either reflective of increased parti-
lution of such shows is partially a result of increasing- sanship in network news, the increased availability of
ly partisan news outlets over the last several decades. alternative news gathering methods, or a general aver-
All the students involved in these focus group discus- sion to a news environment focused more on attaining
sions are products of this generation. They admitted viewers than the content of their stories.
watching these two programs to find news, albeit in a A third possible reason for the aversion to-
comical way. No student, however, discounted these wards major network news is the increasingly indis-
outlets as less credible than major news outlets. That tinguishable division between real news and entertain-
they think of these sources as equal to network news ment news. Networks, to compete for ratings, infuse
in terms of credibility is a reflection of the general more glamour and celebrity to attract wider audiences.
climate for younger generations’ views towards major As a result network news, while still overwhelmingly
network news outlets. These discussions revealed popular for older generations, takes on a different
three key insights about the students’ negativity to- identity for younger generations born with the Internet
wards network news media. and seemingly endless options for information.
First, “fake” news programs have become The education group students did not mention “fake”
viable alternatives for those who have little trust in news in their discussion about credibility in media re-
real news networks. An Annenberg study conducted porting. Rather, they chose to focus on ways in which
in 2004 reported that Daily Show viewers had strong media could be more credible. “Everything is going to
knowledge about the presidential campaign.38 One have a bias no matter what. I mean we’re never going
student from the J175 course strongly believed in the to go over to Iraq and see what’s happening, so it’s
credibility of The Daily Show with Jon Stewart and good to have a discussion about these things. To ques-
The Colbert Report: “I think both shows are credible. tion things,” an education group participant pointed
Because they draw in a different audience and still get out. Another student used Hurricane Katrina to talk
the facts across, and they do it in an entertaining way. about media bias: “With Hurricane Katrina, they
So a lot of people watch it and the points get across.” only showed the bad things. But there were also good
Another student in the J175 group, agreed: “It’s news. things that happened down there, like all the volun-
Most of the time, they talk about stuff that’s happen- teers, and the work of the Coast Guard.” One educa-
ing, like current events...” Students from the J175 tion group discussant concluded the discussion with a
course generally considered “fake” news as more quote indicative of the overall tone of the discussion:
credible than “real” news. These students engaged
62 P. Mihailidis / Journal of Media Literacy Education 1 (2009) 53-67
I understand where it’s all coming in 2006: “I mean, this is horrible, but I didn’t vote. I
from, but with programs like Fox News, felt I wasn’t informed enough to make a decision...I
I mean that’s a massive conservative was informed on some things, but I didn’t have time.”
news outlet. For every conservative Another student followed this by stating: “It depends
person they put half a liberal. It’s very on who you are and what your goals are. I follow
skewed and I think people need to know news all the time...I think you have to go out of your
that. I’m not saying that’s the only net- way to be informed.”
work like this, but it’s one of many that Such discussions reflect an ability to criti-
people need to know about. cally think about media’s role in civic life and what it
The discussions on credibility in reporting led to means to be informed. Stated another student: “In an
interesting possible reasons for what was perceived age when technology has become so vast, you can’t
as more cynical views by the J175 students and more really be expected to stay completely informed...I
diverse conversations by the education group students. mean, I make an attempt of course, but I don’t think
First, the media literacy groups were much more anyone can really be informed completely.” An inter-
uniform in their thought, which was most likely due to esting dichotomy within the J175 group discussions
the fact that they were all in the same class and ex- began to emerge at this point. Students negatively
posed to critical media analysis twice a week. Second, disposed to media just minutes earlier began to speak
and perhaps most important, this difference was either about attempting to be informed, and of the impor-
a red flag for the way in which students approach criti- tance of understanding the numerous sides to a story.
cal engagement with media, or an indictment on the The education group students were somewhat
education group students for not adequately critically hesitant as to how they felt about their interactions
engaging with media. with media. Their discussion ensued with a bit of self-
deprecation: “I knew way more in high school than
Students as Media Consumers I do in college...I’m in a bubble now,” said one par-
Information has the biggest impact on ticipant. “Not at all,” echoed another. Another student
democracy. People will say this is a from the education group offered his take on how
Christian nation and our morals are informed he feels: “skim the headlines, look at the
built on Christian values. That’s the pictures, and then move on.” This was rather indica-
traditional value, and it’s a very big tive of the group’s overall opinion on how informed
thing. Other than that, the media is by media they felt. Aside from one student saying, “if
how we grow up. TV is a new thing, something’s really interesting to you, you’re going to
from the 60’s on. It’s our generation. find out more about it. That’s how I am,” the group
More than just who we vote for, more chose not to discuss, but instead fell back on the idea
than how we view politics, but about that they were not, or were not yet required to be,
the way we think. Since we were kids, informed.
media is how we grow up. As will become evident in the next section, the
—Student, J175: Media views expressed towards media literacy expose a rift
Literacy course in the connection between media literacy skills attain-
ment and a nuanced understanding of media’s role
Before the sessions shifted to discussing what in society. The J175 group students, cynical in their
being informed and aware of media meant, the stu- personal views about media, could not stop praising
dents were asked how much attention they paid to the the benefits of media literacy and the new knowledge
news media, and the role they thought it played in it brought to their daily lives.
their lives.
“I mean, it’s always important to hear about Topic Two: Seeing the Media – Being Media Liter-
things, but I only care about stuff I want to care about. ate
If it’s important to me, I’m going to care about it,” After spending approximately 45 minutes
said a student from the J175 group. Another student discussing news and media, the students were told
offered a confession, albeit justified by his/her person- to begin to think about the term media literacy.39 The
al admission as to why he/she did not choose to vote intent