ERIC EJ1079373: Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couples

2015·0.16 MB·English

by  ERIC

Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couples
Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and
Same-Sex Couples
Gary J. Gates
Summary
Though estimates vary, as many as 2 million to 3.7 million U.S. children under age 18 may
have a lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender parent, and about 200,000 are being raised by
same-sex couples.
Much of the past decade’s legal and political debate over allowing same-sex couples to marry
has centered on these couples’ suitability as parents, and social scientists have been asked
to weigh in. After carefully reviewing the evidence presented by scholars on both sides of
the issue, Gary Gates concludes that same-sex couples are as good at parenting as their
different-sex counterparts. Any differences in the wellbeing of children raised in same-sex
and different-sex families can be explained not by their parents’ gender composition but by
the fact that children being by raised by same-sex couples have, on average, experienced
more family instability, because most children being raised by same-sex couples were born to
different-sex parents, one of whom is now in the same-sex relationship.
That pattern is changing, however. Despite growing support for same-sex parenting,
proportionally fewer same-sex couples report raising children today than in 2000. Why?
Reduced social stigma means that more LGBT people are coming out earlier in life. They’re
less likely than their LGBT counterparts from the past to have different-sex relationships
and the children such relationships produce. At the same time, more same-sex couples
are adopting children or using reproductive technologies like artificial insemination and
surrogacy. Compared to a decade ago, same-sex couples today may be less likely to have
children, but those who do are more likely to have children who were born with same-sex
parents who are in stable relationships.
In the past, most same-sex couples raising children were in a cohabiting relationship. With
same-sex couples’ right to marry now secured throughout the country, the situation is
changing rapidly. As more and more same-sex couples marry, Gates writes, we have the
opportunity to consider new research questions that can contribute to our understanding of
how marriage and parental relationships affect child wellbeing.
www.futureofchildren.org
Gary J. Gates is the Blachford-Cooper Distinguished Scholar and research director at the UCLA School of Law’s Charles R. Williams
Institute on Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Law and Public Policy.
Cynthia Osborne of the University of Texas at Austin reviewed and critiqued a draft of this article.
VOL. 25 / NO. 2 / FALL 2015 67
Gary J. Gates
The speed with which the legal marriage rights for same-sex couples. In
and social climate for lesbian, 1988, just 12 percent of U.S. adults agreed
gay, bisexual, and transgender that same-sex couples should have a right
(LGBT) individuals, same-sex to marry. By 2014, that figure had risen
couples, and their families to 57 percent. Data from Gallup show a
is changing in the United States has few similar pattern, with support for marriage
historical precedents. Measures of social rights for same-sex couples increasing from
acceptance related to sexual relationships, 27 percent in 1996 to 60 percent in 2014.2
parenting, and marriage recognition among Gallup’s analyses document even larger
same-sex couples all increased substantially changes in attitudes toward support for
in the last two decades. The legal climate adoption by same-sex couples. In 1992,
followed a similar pattern. In 2005, when its polling showed that only 29 percent of
the Future of Children last produced an Americans supported the idea that same-sex
issue about marriage and child wellbeing, couples should have the legal right to adopt
only one state allowed same-sex couples to children. In a 2014 poll, that figure was
legally marry. By June 2015, the Supreme 63 percent, even higher than support for
Court had ruled that same-sex couples had a marriage among same-sex couples.3
constitutional right to marry throughout the
Legal Recognition of Same-Sex
United States.
Relationships
Analyses of the General Social Survey, a These shifts in public attitudes toward
biennial and nationally representative survey same-sex relationships and families have
of adults in the United States, show that, been accompanied by similarly dramatic
in the years between 1973 and 1991, the shifts in granting legal status to same-sex
portion who thought that same-sex sexual couple relationships. California was the
relationships were “always wrong” varied first state to enact a statewide process to
little, peaking at 77 percent in 1988 and recognize same-sex couples when it created
1991. The two decades since have seen a its domestic partnership registry in 1999.
rapid decline in this figure, from 66 percent Domestic partnership offered California
in 1993 to 40 percent in 2014.1 Conversely, same-sex couples some of the benefits
the portion of those who say that same-sex normally associated with marriage, namely,
sexual relationships are never wrong didn’t hospital visitation rights and the ability to
go much above 15 percent until 1993. From be considered next of kin when settling
1993 to 2014, that figure increased from the estate of a deceased partner. In 2000,
22 percent to 49 percent. Notably, 2014 Vermont enacted civil unions, a status
marks the first time in the 30 years that designed specifically for same-sex couples
the General Social Survey has been asking to give them a broader set of rights and
this question that the portion of Americans responsibilities akin to those associated with
who think same-sex sexual relationships are marriage.
never wrong is substantially higher than
Massachusetts became the first state to
the portion who say such relationships are
legalize marriage for same-sex couples in
always wrong.
2004. In 2013, the U.S. Supreme Court
The General Social Survey data demonstrate declared unconstitutional the provision
an even more dramatic shift in support for of the federal Defense of Marriage Act
68 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couples
(passed in 1996) that limited federal suggests that the social and legal climate
recognition of marriages to different-sex may explain a great deal about why same-sex
couples.4 That ruling, in Windsor v. United couples behave differently from different-
States, prompted an unprecedented wave sex couples in terms of relationship
of lawsuits in every state where same-sex formation and stability. As society has
couples were not permitted to marry. After begun to treat same-sex couples more
numerous rulings in these cases affirming like different-sex couples, the differences
the right of same-sex couples to marry in a between the two groups have narrowed.
series of states, the Supreme Court’s June For example, compared to 20 years ago,
2015 decision meant that same-sex couples proportionately more lesbians and gay men
could marry anywhere in the country.5 are in cohabiting same-sex relationships, and
they break up and divorce at rates similar to
Globally, marriage or some other form of
those of comparable different-sex couples.11
legal recognition through civil or registered
As of March 2015, Gallup estimated that
partnerships is now widely available to
nearly 40 percent of same-sex couples were
same-sex couples across northern, western,
married.12
and central Europe, large portions of North
and South America, and in South Africa,
Australia, and New Zealand.6 Conversely, As society has begun to treat
homosexuality remains criminalized,
same-sex couples more like
in some cases by punishment of death,
different-sex couples, the
throughout much of Africa, the Middle
East, and Southeast Asia, and in Russia and differences between the two
many Pacific and Caribbean island nations.7
groups have narrowed.
Effects on LGBT Relationships
and Families
Social norms and legal conditions affect how The social and legal climate for LGBT
we live our lives. Psychologists document people also affects how they form families
how social stigma directed toward LGBT and become parents. In a climate of social
people can be quite insidious and damage stigma, LGBT people can feel pressure to
their health and wellbeing.8 It can also affect hide their identities and have relationships
how they form relationships and families. with different-sex partners. Not surprisingly,
For example, studies from the early 1980s some of those relationships produce
found that same-sex couple relationships children. Today, most children being
were, on average, less stable than different- raised by same-sex couples were born to
sex relationships.9 My own analyses of different-sex parents, one of whom is now
data from the early 1990s showed that in the same-sex relationship. This pattern
lesbians and gay men were less likely than is changing, but in ways that may seem
their heterosexual counterparts to be in a counterintuitive. Despite growing support
cohabiting relationship.10 Is this because for same-sex parenting, proportionally fewer
same-sex couple relationships differ from same-sex couples report raising children
different-sex relationships in ways that lead today than in 2000. Reduced social stigma
to instability? Are lesbians and gay men just means that more LGBT people are coming
not the marrying type? Recent research out earlier in life. They’re less likely than
VOL. 25 / NO. 2 / FALL 2015 69
Gary J. Gates
their LGBT counterparts from the past to Minnesota court ruling observed that the
have different-sex relationships and the arguments in favor of allowing the couple
children such relationships produce.13 to marry were based on the proposition that
“the right to marry without regard to the
But that’s not the full story. While parenting
sex of the parties is a fundamental right of
may be declining overall among same-
all persons and that restricting marriage to
sex couples, adoption and the use of
only couples of the opposite sex is irrational
reproductive technologies like artificial
and invidiously discriminatory.” The court
insemination and surrogacy is increasing.
wasn’t persuaded by these arguments, ruling
Compared to a decade ago, same-sex couples
that “the institution of marriage as a union
today may be less likely to have children,
of a man and woman, uniquely involving
but those who do are more likely to have
the procreation of children, is as old as the
children who were born with same-sex
book of Genesis.”16 The U.S. Supreme Court
parents who are in stable relationships.14
dismissed the case on appeal for lack of any
substantial federal question.17
Framing the Debate
The legal and political debates about More than 30 years later, in a ruling from
allowing same-sex couples to marry tend to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Seventh
focus on two large themes that can be seen Circuit in Baskin v. Bogan, which upheld
even in the earliest attempts to garner legal a lower court’s ruling that Indiana’s ban
recognition of same-sex marriages. These on marriage for same-sex couples was
two themes pit arguments about the inherent unconstitutional, Judge Richard Posner
and traditional relationship between offered a distinctly different perspective
marriage and procreation (including the from that of the Minnesota court regarding
suitability of same-sex couples as parents) similar arguments made in a case seeking
against arguments about the degree to which to overturn Indiana’s ban on marriage for
opposition to legal recognition of same-sex same-sex couples. He wrote:
relationships is rooted in irrational animus
At oral argument the state’s lawyer was
and discrimination toward same-sex couples
asked whether “Indiana’s law is about
or lesbian, gay and bisexual (LGB, used here
successfully raising children,” and
because these arguments rarely consider the
since “you agree same-sex couples can
transgender population) individuals more
successfully raise children, why shouldn’t
broadly. (Throughout this article, I use LGB
the ban be lifted as to them?” The lawyer
rather than LGBT when data or research
answered that “the assumption is that
focuses only on sexual orientation and not on
with opposite-sex couples there is very
gender identity.)
little thought given during the sexual
In the United States, the earliest legal act, sometimes, to whether babies may
attempt to expand marriage to include same- be a consequence.” In other words,
sex couples began in 1970, when Richard Indiana’s government thinks that straight
Baker and James McConnell applied for couples tend to be sexually irresponsible,
and were denied a marriage license in producing unwanted children by the
Hennepin County, Minnesota.15 They filed carload, and so must be pressured (in the
a lawsuit that eventually came before the form of governmental encouragement
Minnesota and U.S. supreme courts. The of marriage through a combination of
70 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couples
sticks and carrots) to marry, but that gay 1.4 percent of women identified as lesbian,
couples, unable as they are to produce gay, or bisexual in a national survey.22 These
children wanted or unwanted, are model estimates measure the LGBT population
parents—model citizens really—so have by considering who identifies themselves
no need for marriage. Heterosexuals get using the terms lesbian, gay, bisexual, or
drunk and pregnant, producing unwanted transgender. Self-identity is not necessarily
children; their reward is to be allowed the only way to measure sexual orientation
to marry. Homosexual couples do not or gender identity. For example, if sexual
produce unwanted children; their reward orientation is measured by the gender of
is to be denied the right to marry. Go one’s sexual partners or sexual attractions,
figure.18 then population estimates increase. Findings
from the 2006–08 National Survey of Family
As in Baker v. Nelson, the U.S. Supreme
Growth, a national survey of adults aged
Court opted not to take Baskin v. Bogan
18–44 conducted by the National Center
on appeal. But this time, the court’s
for Health Statistics, show that 12.5 percent
inaction prompted a rapid expansion in the
of women and 5.2 percent of men report
number of states that allowed same-sex
at least some same-sex sexual behavior.
couples to marry. An estimated 13.6 percent of women and
7.1 percent of men report at least some
This article explores the social and legal
same-sex sexual attraction.23
debates about access to marriage for same-
sex couples, how social and legal change is Estimates for the number of cohabiting
affecting the demographic characteristics of same-sex couples in the United States are
LGBT people and their families, whether most commonly derived from U.S. Census
parents’ gender composition affects Bureau data, either decennial Census
children’s wellbeing, and how social science enumerations (beginning in 1990) or the
research has contributed to those debates annual American Community Survey (ACS).
and can track the impact of these social Unfortunately, the accuracy of the Census
changes in the future. Bureau figures for same-sex couples has
been called into question because of a
LGBT Families: Demographic
measurement problem whereby a very small
Characteristics
portion of different-sex couples (mostly
Depending on which survey we consider,
married) make an error on the survey when
from 5.2 million to 9.5 million U.S. adults
recording the gender of one of the partners
identify as LGBT (roughly 2–4 percent
or spouses, so that the survey appears to
of adults).19 An analysis of two state-level
identify the couple as same-sex. Findings
population-based surveys suggests that
from various analyses of Census and ACS
approximately 0.3 percent of adults are
data suggest that the presence of these
transgender.20 More people identify as
false positives among same-sex couples
LGBT today than in the past. Findings
could mean that from one-quarter to one-
from the 2012 Gallup Daily Tracking
half of identified same-sex couples may be
survey suggest that, among adults aged
miscoded different-sex couples.24
18 and older, 3.6 percent of women and
3.3 percent of men identify as LGBT.21 In 2010, the U.S. Census Bureau released
Nearly 20 years ago, 2.8 percent of men and estimates of the number of same-sex
VOL. 25 / NO. 2 / FALL 2015 71
Gary J. Gates
couples that were adjusted to minimize the married same-sex couples by the end of
inaccuracies created by the measurement 2013, approximately 18 percent of all same-
problem. They reported nearly 650,000 sex couples.29 By contrast, ACS estimates
same-sex couples in the country, an increase from the same year suggested that there
of more than 80 percent over the figure were more than 250,000 married same-sex
from Census 2000 of 360,000 couples.25 couples. The NHIS and ACS estimates both
Same-sex couples represent about 0.5 were made before the majority of states
percent of all U.S. households and about allowed same-sex couples to marry. Gallup
1 percent of all married and unmarried estimates from data collected in March 2015
cohabiting couples. My analyses of the found 390,000 married same-sex couples.30
National Health Interview Survey (NHIS), Regardless of the accuracy of these
an annual survey of adults conducted estimates, it’s clear that same-sex couples
by the U.S. Department of Health and are marrying at a rapid rate. The population
Human Services, suggest that there were of married same-sex couples appears to have
approximately 690,000 same-sex couples doubled or even tripled in just one year.31
in the United States in 2013, representing
LGBT and Same-Sex Couple
1.1 percent of all couples, a modest increase
Parents and Families
from the 2010 figures.26 Gallup estimates
from March 2015 suggest that the number LGBT individuals and same-sex couples
of cohabiting same-sex couples may be close come to be parents in many ways. My own
to 1 million.27 analyses estimate that 37 percent of LGBT
individuals have been parents and that as
many as 6 million U.S. children and adults
The population of married
may have an LGBT parent.32 I estimate that
same-sex couples appears to while as many as 2 million to 3.7 million
children under age 18 may have an LGBT
have doubled or even tripled
parent, it’s likely that only about 200,000 are
in just one year. being raised by a same-sex couple.33 Many
are being raised by single LGBT parents,
and many are being raised by different-
Estimating the number of married same- sex couples where one parent is bisexual.
sex couples in the United States is difficult. Most surveys find that bisexuals account
Not all states collect administrative for roughly half of the LGBT population,
marriage data that explicitly identifies and my NHIS analyses suggest that among
same-sex couples. A further complication bisexuals with children, more than six in 10
comes from the measurement issues in are either married (51 percent) or partnered
Census Bureau data. Estimates of the (11 percent) with a different-sex partner.34
number of same-sex couples who identify Only 4 percent are living with a same-sex
as married are now reported in annual ACS spouse or partner.
tabulations, but the measurement error
Data rarely provide clear information about
that I’ve discussed likely means that these
the birth circumstances of children with
figures aren’t very accurate.28
LGBT parents or those living with same-
Based on NHIS data, I calculated that sex couples. But, as I’ve already pointed
there may have been as many as 130,000 out, my analyses of ACS data suggest that
72 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couples
most children currently living with same- their married different-sex counterparts to
sex couples were likely born in previous be living in poverty.
different-sex relationships. Two-thirds of
The evidence of economic disadvantage
children under age 18 living with a same-sex
among same-sex couples with children is
cohabiting couple (married or unmarried)
intriguing given the overall high levels of
are identified as either the biological
education historically observed among those
child or stepchild of one member of the
in same-sex couples. Nearly all research
couple. Only about 12 percent of them are
shows that individuals in same-sex couples
identified as adopted or foster children,
have higher levels of education than those
though that figure has been increasing
over time.35 My research also shows that, in different-sex couples.40 But this pattern
among people who have ever had a child, differs among couples raising children.
LGB individuals report having had their While nearly half of those in same-sex
first child at earlier ages than their non- couples have a college degree, only a third
LGB counterparts.36 This is consistent with of those raising children have that much
many studies documenting that LGB youth education. Same-sex couple parents also
are more likely to experience unintended report higher rates of unemployment than
pregnancy or fatherhood when compared to their different-sex counterparts. Individuals
their non-LGB counterparts.37 Researchers in same-sex and different-sex couples with
speculate that social stigma directed toward children report similar levels of labor force
LGB youth contributes to psychological participation (81 percent and 84 percent,
stress. That stress can sometimes lead them respectively), but those in same-sex couples
to engage in risky behaviors, including are more likely to be unemployed (8 percent
sexual activity that results in unplanned versus 6 percent, respectively). While in
pregnancies. the majority of same-sex and different-sex
couples with children, both spouses or
Analyses of many data sources show that partners are employed (57 percent and 60
racial and ethnic minorities (particularly percent, respectively), same-sex couples
African Americans and Latinos) who are are more likely to have neither partner
LGB or in same-sex couples are more likely employed (8 percent versus 5 percent,
to report raising or having had children. The respectively).41
proportion of all same-sex couples raising
children tends to be higher in more socially The percentage of same-sex couples who are
conservative areas of the country, where raising children began declining in 2006.42
LGB people may have come out relatively As I’ve said, this may actually be a result of
later in life, so were more likely to have social acceptance and LGBT people coming
children with a different-sex partner earlier out (being more public about their LGBT
in life.38 These patterns likely also contribute identity) earlier in life today than in the
to the broad economic disadvantage past. In a Pew Research Center study, for
observed among same-sex couples and LGB example, younger respondents reported
individuals who are raising children. They that they first told someone that they were
have lower incomes than their different-sex LGBT at younger ages than did older
couple or non-LGB counterparts and have respondents.43 It may be that lesbians and
higher levels of poverty.39 In fact, same-sex gay men are less likely now than in the past
couples with children are twice as likely as to have different-sex sexual relationships
VOL. 25 / NO. 2 / FALL 2015 73
Gary J. Gates
while young and, therefore, are less likely to marriage for same-sex couples illegal). Given
have children with a different-sex partner. the origins of the lawsuit, litigants on both
Today, about 19 percent of same-sex sides assembled expert witnesses from the
couples are raising children under age 18, social sciences, including me, to testify
with little variation in that statistic between regarding what social science tells us about
married and unmarried couples. Among parenting among same-sex couples.
LGB individuals not in a couple, the figure
In addition to me, expert witnesses for
is also 19 percent.44
the plaintiffs included psychologist David
Social Science and Political Brodzinsky and sociologist Michael
Debates Rosenfeld. Defense experts included family
To the extent that social scientists have studies scholar Loren Marks, economists
weighed in on the debate about allowing Joseph Price and Douglas Allen, and
same-sex couples to marry and the sociologist Mark Regnerus. A significant focus
consequences that such a change might have of the trial concerned the degree to which
on society and families, they have largely social scientists agree, or legitimately should
focused on parenting. Questions regarding agree, with the proposition that research
the extent to which LGBT individuals and overwhelmingly shows that the gender
same-sex couples become parents, how they composition of two-parent families is not
come to be parents, and whether and how associated with differences in their children’s
sexual orientation or gender composition of health and wellbeing.
children’s parents might affect their health
The courtroom can be a challenging
and wellbeing have all been considered
environment for academic debates about
within the framework of the debates about
scholarly theoretical frameworks and
legalizing marriage for same-sex couples.
research methodology. The setting tends
Social Science on Trial to value argumentation using assertion and
This dynamic may be best observed in the provocation over the more scholarly rhetorical
testimony that emerged from a trial in the tendency of detailed explanation. But I
case of DeBoer v. Snyder, a lawsuit filed present the research in the context of the trial
in the U.S. District Court for the Eastern as a way to emphasize the degree to which
District of Michigan that challenged policy debates about the meaning of marriage
the state’s ban on marriage for same-sex and family can affect how scholars interpret
couples. The case originated when plaintiffs research findings. In the end, I argue that
April DeBoer and Jayne Rowse were denied the research on same-sex parenting and
the ability to complete a joint adoption families is remarkably consistent. It shows
(where both partners are declared a legal that children raised by same-sex couples
parent to the child) because Michigan experience some disadvantages relative to
allowed such adoptions only among married children raised by different-sex married
couples. Judge Bernard A. Friedman parents. But the disadvantages are largely
ordered a trial, the first such trial in a case explained by differences in experiences of
involving marriage rights for same-sex family stability between the two groups.
couples since a challenge to California’s Many children being raised by same-sex
Proposition 8 (a 2008 ballot initiative, couples have experienced the breakup of
later overturned by the courts, that made their different-sex parents, resulting in more
74 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN
Marriage and Family: LGBT Individuals and Same-Sex Couples
instability in their lives. That instability has of several decades of parenting research,
negative consequences. These findings are Marks argues that the bulk of research
consistent in research conducted by scholars focused on same-sex couple parenting uses
on both sides of the debate regarding relatively small samples that cannot be
marriage for same-sex couples. No research generalized to the population as a whole.
suggests that the gender composition or He points out that the research does not
sexual orientation of parents is a significant sufficiently capture the diversity of same-sex
factor in negative child outcomes. couple parenting, because study populations
are biased toward female parents with
The earliest attempts to systematically relatively high education and socioeconomic
study parenting by LGB people or same- status. In the absence of large-scale
sex couples occurred in the 1980s. In their longitudinal parenting studies (that is,
1989 study of gay parenting, Jerry Bigner studies that follow a group of people over
and Frederick Bozett wrote: “The term gay time) with representative samples, Marks
father is contradictory in nature. This is concludes that it is premature to assert that
more a matter of semantics, however, as gay gender composition in two-parent families is
has the connotation of homosexuality while not related to child health and wellbeing.
father implies heterosexuality. The problem
The American Sociological Association,
lies in determining how both may be applied
examining many of the same studies
simultaneously to an individual who has
considered by Marks, came to a very
a same-sex orientation, and who also is a
different conclusion. Its amicus brief opens
parent.” They assert that “although research
by arguing:
is limited, it appears that gay fathers are at
least equal to heterosexual fathers in the
The social science consensus is clear:
quality of their parenting.”45 More than two
children raised by same-sex parents
and a half decades later, this statement was
fare just as well as children raised
still being debated in a Michigan courtroom.
by opposite-sex parents. Numerous
nationally representative, credible, and
Child Health and Wellbeing
methodologically sound social science
For example, let’s compare a commentary
studies form the basis of this consensus.
piece by expert witness Loren Marks with a
These studies reveal that children raised
friend-of-the-court brief from the American
by same-sex parents fare just as well as
Sociological Association that was filed in
children raised by opposite-sex couples
the U.S. Supreme Court cases challenging
across a wide spectrum of child-wellbeing
California’s Proposition 8 (Hollingsworth v.
measures: academic performance,
Perry) and the federal DOMA (Windsor v.
cognitive development, social
United States), and refiled in the Michigan
development, psychological health, early
case.46 Marks takes serious issue with an
sexual activity, and substance abuse.48
assertion in a brief on gay and lesbian
parenting published by the American The brief concludes: “The social science
Psychological Association, which says, “Not consensus is both conclusive and clear:
a single study has found children of lesbian children fare just as well when they are
or gay parents to be disadvantaged in any raised by same-sex parents as when they
significant respect relative to children of are raised by opposite sex parents. This
heterosexual parents.”47 Based on his review consensus holds true across a wide range of
VOL. 25 / NO. 2 / FALL 2015 75
Gary J. Gates
child outcome indicators and is supported different-sex married parents. Rosenfeld’s
by numerous nationally representative original analyses reported no significant
studies.” The disparate conclusions drawn differences between the two groups. Third,
from these two reviews of largely the same Allen conducted another study that analyzed
research studies result from philosophic Canadian Census data and purported to
differences about the conditions necessary show that young adults living with same-sex
to draw consensus conclusions about social couples have lower high school graduation
science research. Marks argues for a bar of rates when compared to those living with
more large, representative, and longitudinal different-sex married couples.51
studies. The American Sociological
Family Structure and Stability
Association asserts that the absence of
negative findings among a large group of The scholarly debates surrounding these
smaller and often nonrepresentative samples studies all focus on the degree to which
is compelling and supported by enough it’s necessary to take a history of family
larger studies using representative and instability into account when assessing
longitudinal samples to substantiate a claim differences in outcomes among children
that children are not harmed by having living in different types of family structures.
same-sex parents. Most research suggests that living in
unstable families can harm children’s
Three other recent studies (all discussed
wellbeing.52 This issue is at the heart of the
in great detail in the Michigan trial) using
widespread criticism of Regnerus’s New
population-based data purport to challenge
Family Structures Study.53 Regnerus took
the American Sociological Association’s
histories of family instability into account
assertion of a consensus that parents’
for some, but not all, of the comparison
gender composition doesn’t harm child
groups that he established to consider how
outcomes. First, in a study of young adults,
family structure affects child outcomes.
sociologist Mark Regnerus found that those
One group included all respondents who
who reported having parents who had a
indicated that a parent had had a same-sex
same-sex sexual relationship fared far worse
sexual partner before the respondent turned
on a wide variety of health and wellbeing
age 18, regardless of past experiences of
measures than did those raised largely
family instability (for example, divorce or
by their married, different-sex biological
separation of parents); Regnerus compared
parents.49
that group to respondents who had specific
Second, Douglas Allen and colleagues types of family stability or instability,
published a commentary concerning a including those who lived only with their
study by Michael Rosenfeld that questioned married biological parents, those who
Rosenfeld’s decision, in his analyses of data lived in stepfamilies, and those who lived
from U.S. Census 2000, to limit his sample with single parents. Critics argued that the
of children in same-sex and different-sex negative outcomes of children with a parent
couples to those who have lived in the who had a same-sex sexual relationship were
household for at least five years.50 Allen and much more likely related to a history of
colleagues found that when they loosened family instability than to either the sexual
that restriction in the data, children raised orientation or gender composition of the
by same-sex couples showed educational parents. A later analysis of the Regnerus data
disadvantages compared to those with supports critics’ arguments and shows that
76 THE FUTURE OF CHILDREN