ERIC EJ1073554: Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through Transformational Learning Approaches

2015·0.38 MB·English

by  ERIC

Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems
through Transformational Learning Approaches
Joyce Yukawa
St. Catherine University, Minnesota, Email [email protected]
As the information environment becomes increasingly complex and challenging, Li-
brary and Information Studies (LIS) education is called upon to nurture innovative lead-
ers capable of managing complex situations and “wicked problems.” While disciplinary
expertise remains essential, higher levels of mental complexity and adaptive capabili-
ties are also needed to manage complexity. This article reviews three transformational
learning approaches with the potential to effectively guide student growth toward these
higher levels: (1) overcoming immunity to change, (2) threshold concepts and variation
theories, and (3) transformative learning theory. All three approaches aim at transform-
ing high-level meanings that are limiting into understandings that empower in order to
achieve pragmatic goals, comprehend foundational disciplinary concepts, and generate
new frames of reference for social justice.
Introduction As we move from ideas to action, a criti-
cal issue that arises is the gap between the
As society becomes increasingly com- world’s complexity and our abilities to
plex and reshaped by technological manage such complexity (Kegan & Lahey,
innovation, Library and Information Sci- 2009). Managing complexity demands
ence (LIS) professionals are called upon more than technical knowledge; it requires
to develop themselves and to assist those the ability to make adaptive changes in our
they serve to meet new challenges emerg- thinking, beliefs, and behavior (Heifetz &
ing in the digital age. At the 2014 ALA Linsky, 2002a). Recent developments in
Summit on imagining the future of librar- learning theories and teaching practice
ies, thought leaders from libraries, educa- are often responses to some form of this
tional organizations, federal agencies, and critical question: How can we help our stu-
foundations identified key themes for the dents prepare for the future in a complex,
future: the changing role of libraries and rapidly changing environment?
the implications for LIS education, re- Behind that question is a belief that new
envisioning library service, libraries as forms will emerge that are unimaginable
community hubs, and rebranding libraries now, and that increasing our knowledge
(Bolt, 2014, p. 1–3). Recently, the Asso- and skills within existing frameworks will
ciation of College and Research Libraries not suffice in dealing with novel situations.
(ACRL) Research Planning and Review What we come to know through informa-
Committee (2013) undertook an environ- tional learning will still be fundamental,
mental scan that also identified key trends but changes in how we know through
and changes needed for the future, notably transformational learning will also be crit-
entrepreneurial thinking, radical collabo- ical (Kegan, 2000). That is the premise for
ration, and LIS education that fosters in- this examination of three transformational
novation and creative leadership skills. learning approaches that have the potential
These are complex challenges with to help students move toward higher levels
disruptive and transformational potential. of mental complexity: (1) overcoming im-
J. of Education for Library and Information Science, Vol. 56, No. 2—(Spring) April 2015
ISSN: 0748-5786 © 2015 Association for Library and Information Science Education 158
doi:10.12783/issn.2328-2967/56/2/6
Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through Transformational Learning 159
munity to change, (2) threshold concepts and complex social contexts can be chal-
and variation theories, and (3) transforma- lenging, in part because complicated
tive learning theory. worlds can become complex when human
We begin the examination with a look actors are involved. But making the dis-
at some difficult challenges LIS profes- tinction is important, as this affects how
sionals are likely to face in the future. we understand and handle problems. An
Against that backdrop, the approaches example of the importance of making these
will be introduced in turn, covering brief distinctions in LIS contexts is a study by
history, significance, and key tenets. Each MacLeod and Childs (2013) on electronic
approach illuminates a different kind of records management as a wicked problem.
transformation, rests on a solid research Social complexity gives rise to wicked
foundation, and has had significant impact problems (also known as messes), the most
on education or practice. The final section challenging type of problem to understand
compares the approaches and discusses and to solve (Rittel & Webber, 1973;
the implications for LIS education. Conklin, 2006; Snowden & Boone, 2007).
Wicked problems exist in a context that is
A Glimpse of the Future: In the in flux and unpredictable. They have no
Shadow of Complexity obvious problem statement, no apparent
causal relationships, and are thus not ame-
That social systems, technological sys- nable to the application of best practices,
tems, and the information environment expert diagnoses, or fact-based manage-
are becoming increasingly complex is un- ment. Conklin (2006, p. 16) provides some
deniable, but our understanding of what examples of wicked problems: how to deal
this means is more nuanced due to work with crime and violence in schools, where
on complexity theory and wicked prob- to route a new highway, what our new
lems. Understanding degrees of complex- mission statement should be, and what
ity allows us to make distinctions to guide features our new product should have.
decision-making (Miller & Page, 2007; In solving wicked problems, the quality
Snowden & Boone, 2007). Simple contexts of leadership is critical: “A leader, from
are stable and governed by causal relation- above or below, with or without authority,
ships that are obvious to all; problems are has to engage people in confronting the
solved through best practices. In compli- challenge, adjusting their values, chang-
cated systems, elements are numerous and ing perspectives, and learning new habits”
varied, and the causal relationships among (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997, p. 134). Over
them are less obvious. Because the ele- the past several decades, Heifetz and his
ments are relatively independent of each colleagues (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997; Heif-
other, changes to or removal of one ele- etz & Linsky, 2002a) have advanced the
ment will not affect the others. Solving concepts of adaptive change and adaptive
problems in complicated contexts requires leadership, which have been adopted by
data gathering and analysis by experts to business, government, and nonprofits for
find a good solution from among possible social change. The most important work
solutions. Finally, complex adaptive sys- of adaptive leaders is to: (1) question the
tems consist of interdependent, interact- paradigm, (2) think and act collaborative-
ing elements that respond as an integrated ly, (3) experiment to understand the prob-
whole to internal or environmental chang- lem and emergent solution, (4) use conflict
es. This type of system is irreducible to its to mobilize creative responses, and (5) do
parts and solutions are emergent, discov- continual high-level reflection.
ered through experimentation and obser- Question the paradigm. “The existence
vation. of a mess is strong evidence that the par-
Distinguishing between complicated adigm is not able to resolve the problem
160 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
and in fact may be the cause of the mess. questioning and reframing issues. All in-
Therefore, try to identify all the assump- volved must have the emotional capac-
tions in the belief system and see if any of ity to tolerate uncertainty, frustration, and
them is questionable in the current situa- anxiety (Heifetz & Laurie, 1997, p. 127).
tion” (Denning, 2007, p. 25). Uncovering Do continual high-level reflection. To
questionable assumptions that are integral- step back from action and assess what is
ly tied to values, perspectives, and identity happening from a high-level perspective is
can be both a liberating and a threatening, essential but challenging (Heifetz & Lin-
divisive process (Heifetz & Linsky, 2002, sky, 2002b; Schon, 1983). It is difficult to
p. 101–102). take the time to stop acting and assess how
Think and act collaboratively. “Because complex factors related to actions, context,
of social complexity, solving wicked and people are furthering or obstructing
problems is essentially a social process” change. Honest, fearless self-awareness
(Conklin, 2006, p. 29). In looking for solu- is critical for seeing clearly, as our beliefs
tions outside the current paradigm, differ- and assumptions shape what we see.
ent perspectives and dissent are crucial for This glimpse of the future puts our stu-
generating new ideas. Conklin’s (2006) dents in the shadow of complexity as fu-
dialogue mapping process and Snowden’s ture LIS professionals. It seems clear that
(Kurtz & Snowden, 2003) Cynefin sense- an education in disciplinary expertise and
making process are examples of methods best practices is necessary but not suf-
for framing and sustaining productive ficient for future effectiveness. We now
dialogue. To ensure that this process is in- turn to three transformational learning ap-
clusive, voices of leadership from below proaches that have potential to strengthen
must be protected. All involved should the ability to manage complex systems
recognize that the problem and the solu- and wicked problems.
tion exist within themselves and should
take responsibility for change (Heifetz & Immunity to Change: Breaking
Laurie, 1997). Down Barriers to Pragmatic Action
Experiment to understand the problem
and discover emergent solutions. The di- Until the 1980s, most experts believed
mensions of a wicked problem become that the brain’s capacity for change ceased
clear only through experimenting with in late adolescence and that the “wisdom
possible solutions and considering and/ that comes with age” was due to experi-
or testing their effects. This is a creative ence rather than qualitative changes in
learning process that involves willingness mental complexity (Kegan & Lahey, 2009,
to take risks. Environments and methods Chapter 1, Section 1, para. 1). Subsequent
are needed that allow patterns and solu- research on cognitive development (e.g.,
tions to emerge (Kurtz & Snowden, 2003). Belenky, et al. 1986; Kegan, 1982, 1994;
Use conflict to mobilize creative re- King & Kitchener, 2004), the flourishing
sponses. “Some of the most creative ideas research on neural plasticity, and advances
come out of people in conflict remaining in learning theories indicate that adults can
in conversation with one another. . . . The and do develop more complex cognitive
challenge for leaders is to develop struc- abilities throughout their lives.
tures and processes in which such conflicts Adult developmental psychologists Ke-
can be orchestrated productively” (Heifetz gan and Lahey (2001, 2009) have devel-
& Linsky, 2002b, p. 33). Leaders must oped a process they call overcoming the
counteract ways of avoiding change, such immunity to change to address our lack of
as scapegoating, denial, and blame. When understanding of what prevents change.
conflicts are polarized and superficial, a Based on over three decades of research,
leader must deepen the debate through Kegan (1982, 1994) has identified three
Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through Transformational Learning 161
increasingly complex levels of conscious- nity map” in which they articulate high
ness occurring among adults. priority goals that have been elusive, iden-
tify behavior that is contrary to the goals,
• The socialized mind is shaped by expec- uncover hidden commitments that support
tations from the personal environment, self-defeating behavior, and identify the
and the self aligns with personal rela- “big assumptions” (previously unques-
tionships, schools of thought, or both. tioned tenets) that sustain the immune sys-
• The self-authoring mind has developed a tem and must be changed to achieve the
center of personal authority, and the self goals. The final step is a targeted plan of
aligns with its own belief system, voice, action to achieve the goals with a changed
and ability to direct its own actions. mindset. Creating an immunity map is the
• The self-transforming mind understands opportunity to engage “in focused, struc-
the limits of personal ideologies and tured, persistent, and active reflection”
authority and realizes that contradic- Kegan & Lahey, 2009, Conclusion, Sec-
tion, opposites, and multiple systems tion 4, para. 5). In essence, the work of im-
are needed for wholeness. The self munity mapping is a step toward a higher
“coheres through its ability not to con- level of mental complexity.
fuse internal consistency with whole- The immunity to change approach helps
ness or completeness, and through its overcome two major barriers to solving
alignment with the dialectic rather than wicked problems: a self-limiting mindset
either pole” (Kegan & Lahey, 2009, and self-defeating behavior. Key contribu-
Chapter 1, Section 2, para. 2). tions are its research-based descriptions of
levels of mental complexity and a system-
Two different large-scale studies of the atic process for moving to higher levels. A
distribution of mental complexity among challenge to educators is the lack of atten-
adults (Torbert, 1987; Kegan, 1994) tion to applying the process within higher
showed that 58% of adults had not reached education.
the level of the self-authoring mind, and
very few had moved beyond it (Kegan & Threshold Concepts and Variation
Lahey, 2009, Chapter 1, Section 4, para. Theories: Transforming
11). Professional Understanding
To meet the challenges of the future, Ke-
gan and Lahey believe that we must move Threshold concepts theory and varia-
toward more complex levels; otherwise, tion theory developed separately, but ef-
our learning and ability to solve problems forts toward a synthesis of these comple-
will occur within our existing mindsets. mentary theories have recently begun.
However, efforts at change are obstructed We will review each theory in turn before
by a deeply rooted internal system of bar- looking at two efforts at theoretical and
riers (an “immunity system”) that individ- practical integration.
uals construct for self-protection against
perceived danger. Kegan and Lahey have Threshold Concepts Theory: Mastering
developed a systematic process for over- Conceptual Gateways
coming the immunity to change, exempli-
fied by numerous case studies, including Threshold concepts theory has been
one of librarians at a large research uni- widely embraced by educators since its
versity who moved from the periphery of introduction in 2003 by Meyer and Land.
university governance to full partnership The Threshold Concepts Conference held
(Kegan & Lahey, 2009, Chapter 11, Sec- its fifth biennial session in 2014. The
tion 4, para. 5). Threshold Concept web page (http://www.
Individuals or teams create an “immu- ee.ucl.ac.uk/~mflanaga/thresholds.html)
162 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
maintained by Michael Flanagan, Univer- [W]ithin each discipline, there are a limited
sity College London, lists numerous pub- number of concepts that are ‘threshold’
lications in a range of remarkably diverse in nature, so-called because they act as
fields. ‘conceptual gateways’ to disciplinary ways
Threshold concepts theory is beginning of thinking about a subject area. . . .
to have an impact on the LIS field. In re- [They] enable students to coherently
sponse to changes in user behavior, tech- integrate what were previously seen as
nology, and the information environment, unrelated aspects of the subject, . . . lead-
ACRL revised its information literacy ing not only to new ways of understanding
standards by creating a new framework a subject area, but a shift in the learner’s
founded on six threshold concepts (http:// sense of professional or disciplinary iden-
acrl.ala.org/ilstandards/). Tucker and col- tity. . . . However, the transformative and
leagues (2014) provide an overview of the integrative nature of these concepts makes
theory and its potential for LIS curriculum them commonly troublesome for students
development, research, and practice. to learn … misunderstandings have long-
What are threshold concepts? Accord- lasting implications for students’ learning
ing to Meyer and Land (2003, p. 1), a in the subject area, and their ability to
“threshold concept can be considered as apply that learning in professional practice.
akin to a portal, opening up a new and pre- This makes Threshold Concepts a particu-
viously inaccessible way of thinking about larly valuable area on which to focus extra
something. It represents a transformed curriculum design attention. (p. 2)
way of understanding, or interpreting,
or viewing something without which the An understanding of threshold concepts
learner cannot progress.” The essential in LIS could be a powerful conceptual and
characteristics of threshold concepts are ontological tool for solving wicked prob-
that they are: lems, because such understanding would
encourage taking high-level disciplinary
• Troublesome—difficult to understand perspectives and continually questioning
because a disciplinary understanding the adequacy of one’s view.
can be alien or counter-intuitive to nov- A crucial aspect of acquiring under-
ices. standing of a threshold concept is experi-
• Transformative—understanding results encing liminality, described as “the state
in a qualitative shift in perspective on in which there are two competing ways of
the subject, and possibly in sense of seeing a situation, one the established but
identity and worldview. increasingly inadequate way and the other
• Integrative—full understanding expos- a new, more powerful and comprehen-
es hidden inter-relatedness in the sub- sive way of seeing” (Baillie, Bowden, &
ject/discipline. Meyer, 2013). Because threshold concepts
• Irreversible—unlikely to be forgotten, are a challenge to conceptual understand-
indeed, students may “forget” what it ing and even professional identity forma-
was like not to understand. tion, liminality has been likened to a rite of
• Bounded—may constitute a boundary passage (Meyer & Land, 2006).
between conceptual areas or disciplines It is in developing the power to see dif-
(Akerlind, Mackenzie, & Lupton, 2011, ferently that variation theory becomes im-
p. 2). portant.
Akerlind, Mackenzie, and Lupton Variation Theory: Learning to Be
(2011) provide a concise description of Discerning
how and why threshold concepts are both
important and challenging: Variation theory and its associated re-
Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through Transformational Learning 163
search methodology, phenomenography, way we can prepare for the undefinable
emerged from empirical research in K-12 variation in the future is by experiencing
education done by Ference Marton and his variation in the present and by having ex-
colleagues beginning in the 1970s (Marton perienced variation in the past” (p. 281).
& Booth, 1997, p. 14–16; Yates, Partridge,
& Bruce, 2012, p. 97). Its articulation as a Synthesis of Threshold Concepts and
theory of learning and awareness has been Variation Theories
gradual, with contributions particularly
from scholars in Sweden, the UK, Australia, Oversimplified, threshold concepts
and Hong Kong (Akerlind, 2005, p. 321). theory focuses on the content of learning,
Variation theory uses differentiation to and variation theory addresses the process.
enable students to become more discern- Recognition of the complementarities of
ing and capable of handling novel situa- the two theories has recently led to ad-
tions. Akerlind, Mackenzie, and Lupton vances in theory and practice through their
(2011) provide a concise description of the integration.
process of learning through variation: Baillie, Bowden, and Meyer (2013)
have proposed a theoretical integration of
According to Variation Theory, misun-
threshold concepts with capability theory,
derstandings (or less sophisticated under-
which is “firmly based in phenomenogra-
standings) of a disciplinary concept may
phy and variation theory” (p. 227). The
be explained in terms of students’ lack of
integrated theory is intended to aid in “the
awareness of key features or aspects of the
development of learning for an unknown
concept. Learning is thus seen as occur-
future—to enhance the capacity of stu-
ring through a shift in awareness, where a
dents to learn an as yet undiscovered con-
student becomes aware of aspects of a con-
cept themselves, once they encounter it”
cept that they had not previously noticed.
(Baillie, Bowden, & Meyer, 2013, p. 241).
It is argued that awareness of a conceptual
The Australian Learning and Teach-
feature is best facilitated by drawing stu-
ing Council’s Threshold Concepts and
dents’ attention to variation in that feature.
Variation Theory Project (http://www.
Therefore, student learning of a concept is
thresholdvariation.edu.au) developed,
best facilitated by introducing variation in
implemented, and evaluated a curriculum
each of the critical features of the concept
design model to aid student learning of
into teaching and learning activities. (p. 2)
threshold concepts through variation the-
Experiencing variation also leads to ory. The project used two contrasting dis-
sensitization to aspects of the environ- ciplines as case studies (physics and law)
ment, and this awareness becomes the ba- and was implemented at four varied insti-
sis for seeing aspects of future situations. tutions (Akerlind, Mackenzie, & Lupton,
One must also be able to discern new criti- 2011, p. 1).
cal features of a phenomenon, but “even At the end of the project, student out-
the discernment of entirely new features comes were generally in line with expec-
depends on the variation that you have en- tations. Regarding participating faculty,
countered earlier” (Marton, Runnesson, & however, the outcomes far exceeded ex-
Tsui, 2004, p. 11). pectations, particularly in faculty under-
The significance of variation theory for standing of what students found difficult
higher education was extensively explored and in improvements in their own under-
by Bowden and Marton (1998) in The Uni- standing of the concepts. According to the
versity of Learning. They argue that “pre- project developers, “the perceived benefits
paring students for situations in the future were profound. . . . Participants reported
amounts to developing their capabilities benefits, sometimes of a transformational
for seeing in effective ways … The only nature” (p. 19).
164 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
Helping students acquire the gateway perspectives, habits of mind, mind-sets) to
knowledge and adaptive capabilities to act make them more inclusive, discriminating,
effectively in the future is the explicit goal open, emotionally capable of change, and
of threshold concepts and variation theo- reflective so that they may generate beliefs
ries. A synthesis of these theories contrib- and opinions that will prove more true or
utes to our view of how individuals make justified to guide action. Transformative
conceptual breakthroughs in disciplinary learning involves participation in construc-
or professional understanding through be- tive discourse to use the experience of
coming more discerning about ideas, expe- others to assess reasons justifying these as-
rience, and the social environment. These sumptions, and making an action decision
are critical skills for managing complexity based on the resulting insight (Mezirow,
and solving wicked problems. 2012, p. 76).
Transformative Learning Theory: This movement toward greater mental
New Frames of Reference for complexity has elements of Kegan’s self-
Social Justice authoring and self-transforming minds.
The three central elements in the pro-
Since its inception in the 1980s from cess are experience, dialogue, and criti-
Jack Mezirow’s (1978) research on older cal reflection (Taylor & Cranton, 2013).
women’s reentry programs for a return to Experience, a key component of adult
formal education or the workforce, trans- learning in general (Merriam, Cafferella,
formative learning theory has overshad- & Baumgartner, 2007), is the ground for
owed Knowles’ andragogy and moved to meaning making and critical examina-
the center of the study of adult learning tions of assumptions. This often comes in
(Merriam, Cafferella, & Baumgartner, the form of a disruptive event or troubling
2007; Cranton & Taylor, 2012), as well as situation (“disorienting dilemma”).
to the forefront of future-oriented educa- Dialogue is important for exposing
tion theories (Kalantzis & Cope, 2012). us to other experiences, broadening our
The theory’s philosophical underpinnings perspectives, and developing beliefs that
are constructivism, humanism, and critical are more justified for action. At the same
theory. Over the past thirty years, a rich set time, dialogue fosters dispositions and
of new approaches has evolved, including practices needed for full participation in
the role of transformative learning in or- a democratic society—a set of commonly
ganizational learning (Watkins, Marsick, accepted norms of communication, accu-
& Faller, 2012) and leadership develop- rate and complete information, active lis-
ment (Gunnlaugson, 2011). The pedagogy tening, absence of domination, willingness
of transformative learning has received to critically question assumptions, and
widespread attention in higher educa- withholding judgment “until one empathi-
tion and professional development (e.g., cally understands another’s point of view”
Brookfield, 1995, 2004; Cranton, 2006; (Mezirow, 2012, p. 81).
Kasworm & Bowles, 2012). The crux of transformative learning is
The view presented here is based on critical reflection. While this may involve
Mezirow, as his articulation continues to many of the skills and dispositions of criti-
be the foundation for ongoing elaboration cal thinking (e.g., Bailin et al., 1999; Ennis,
and critique. His definition of transforma- 2011) and reflective practice (e.g., Argyris
tive learning is this: & Schon, 1974; Schon, 1983), transforma-
tive learning theory places distinctively
Transformative learning refers to the strong emphasis on questioning the as-
process by which we transform our taken- sumptions on which frames of reference
for-granted frames of reference (meaning are predicated. This is done in two ways:
Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through Transformational Learning 165
critical reflection on the assumptions of processes that begin with a conflict and
others (CRA) and critical self-reflection mature through deep reflection.
on one’s own assumptions (CSRA) (Kre- The approaches differ in their focus
ber, 2012; Mezirow, 1998, 2012). Because and ways of moving toward higher lev-
CSRA can be highly threatening emotion- els of mental complexity. Immunity to
ally, support from trusted, empathetic oth- change focuses on transforming individual
ers is important. and group frames of reference in order to
The use of CRA and CSRA has been change practice. The three levels of men-
the basis for many efforts to foster learn- tal complexity provide a means for under-
ing transformations and social change. standing individual differences, and the
Critiquing dominant ideologies challenges immunity mapping process is detailed and
oppressive beliefs and breaks their hold applicable at any level of complexity.
on us. In the workplace, critical reflection Threshold/variation theories focus on
can support “more open-ended, frank ex- disciplinary knowledge. Together, they
ploration of the disorienting reality of the call attention to the need to identify thresh-
current situation, the root causes of the old concepts and illuminate the dynamics
problems we face, and creative alternative involved in learning them.
responses” (Watkins, Marsick, & Faller, Transformative learning theory focuses
2012, p. 385). on critical reflection on assumptions to
The explicit goal of transformative undermine self-limiting mindsets and so-
learning theory is to use the desire for cially oppressive beliefs with the ultimate
change arising from a disruptive event or aim of changing society for the better.
disturbing situation to develop beliefs that What are the implications for LIS edu-
are more true or justified to guide future cation? In the aggregate, LIS programs
action. Of the theories reviewed in this ar- already require students to apply critical
ticle, only transformative learning theory thinking skills, management perspectives,
holds critical theory and social critique and critical pedagogy to investigate and
among its central concerns. analyze discipline-based problems and
to find socially responsible solutions. An
Implications for LIS Education understanding of transformational learn-
ing approaches and their judicious use can
These three transformational learning strengthen the curriculum by systematical-
approaches provide different possibilities ly promoting the thinking and action that
for fostering the adaptive leadership skills support student growth to higher levels of
discussed earlier: (1) question the para- mental complexity. Meeting the challenge
digm, (2) think and act collaboratively, of wicked problems is a clear imperative.
(3) experiment to understand the problem The issues identified by the 2014 ALA
and emergent solution, (4) use conflict to Summit and the 2013 ACRL environmen-
mobilize creative responses, and (5) do tal scan mentioned at the start of this ar-
continual high-level reflection. Table 1 ticle are largely wicked problems. In their
explores this potential by suggesting how study of electronic records management as
each approach is relevant to developing a wicked problem, MacLeod and Childs
the skills needed to solve wicked prob- (2013) found that nearly one third of the
lems. A notable gap among the approaches “people issues” were in the complex do-
is the lack of focus on experimenting with main, requiring complex adaptive systems
emergence in novel situations. thinking.
The main concern of all three approach- It is beyond the scope of this article to
es is transforming high-level meanings delve into pedagogy, but the implications
that are limiting into beliefs that empower. for teaching are challenging. As Baillie,
All three approaches describe learning Bowden, and Meyer (2013, p. 240) point
166 JOURNAL OF EDUCATION FOR LIBRARY AND INFORMATION SCIENCE
Table 1. Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through
Transformational Learning Approaches.
Immunity to Change Threshold/Variation Transformative
Solving Wicked Problems Process Theories Learning Theory
Question the paradigm Through immunity One questions Critical reflection on
mapping, individuals inadequacies in one’s assumptions (self &
& groups identify view of a threshold other) questions deeply
hidden commitments & concept & moves to a held meanings & is
major assumptions that more powerful, complete often used for ideology
obstruct change. understanding. critique.
Think and act Group immunity Not explicitly addressed, Dialogue is used to
collaboratively mapping leads to as the focus is on understand diverse
shared understanding individual learning. views, attain a more
& commitment, inclusive frame of
& recognition reference. Conditions
that everyone has for communication
immunities & is foster democratic
responsible for change. participation.
Experiment to understand Not explicitly There is a focus on novel Not explicitly
the problem and addressed. situations, though testing addressed.
emergent solution for emergent solutions is
not explicitly addressed.
Use conflict to mobilize Inability to achieve Inability to grasp a A disorienting dilemma
creative responses high priority goals is threshold concept drives is the stimulus to
used to uncover self- shifts in awareness examine & transform
defeating behavior & to & discernment; the inadequate or
change limiting beliefs; process builds capacity oppressive beliefs; the
the process builds to manage confusion, process builds capacity
capacity to manage ambiguity & threats to to manage disturbing
anxiety related to identity in liminal states. emotions, (e.g., fear,
change. anger, guilt, shame).
Do continual high-level Immunity mapping In a liminal state, one Critical reflection
reflection supports focused, continually reconsiders on assumptions (self
structured, persistent, variants in meaning & other) is used to
active reflection until conceptual transform frames of
to uncover major breakthroughs occur. reference (high-level
assumptions underlying By definition, threshold meaning structures).
self-defeating behavior. concepts are high-level.
out, the challenge of curriculum design is Conclusion
to ensure that students experience “real,
previously unseen situations; experience While disciplinary expertise and knowl-
variation both within and between situa- edge of best practices remain fundamen-
tions; exercise authentic professional dis- tal, it has been argued that higher levels of
cernment and judgment in each situation; mental complexity and adaptive capabili-
reflect on experience . . . and have each ties will be needed to manage an increas-
new experience building on those that ing number of novel situations and wicked
came before.” One compelling pedagogi- problems likely to emerge in the future.
cal choice is service learning. This article has reviewed three transforma-
Preparing for Complexity and Wicked Problems through Transformational Learning 167
tional learning approaches with the poten- the future of libraries. ALA Summit on the Future
tial to guide student growth toward these of Libraries—Report to ALA Membership. Re-
trieved from http://connect.ala.org/node/219621
higher levels—through changing practice,
Bowden, J. A. (2004). Capabilities-driven cur-
transforming disciplinary understanding,
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