ERIC EJ1066300: Academic Performance Difficulties: Age and Grade at First Referral

2008·5.1 MB·English

by  ERIC

ESEARCH PAPERS

ACADEMIC PERFORMANCE DIFFICULTIES: AGE AND
GRADE AT FIRST REFERRAL

IMARSHA J. HARMAN*

8. THOMAS KORDINAK**

‘A. JERRY BRUCE***

‘ABSTRACT
‘Archival records of 43 chilcren referred for dlognoss ond treatment for academic aicuties were examined fo
ermine if WISC-l1scorescorelotedith lagnos’s Resutsrevecled.asigniicont ference forage ot fsteterra‘and
lognos’s. Those wih sores such as learning alsobily and severe emotiona turbance fended o be ole while
‘ose wih the ADHD anc osthymic csorder fended tobe younger Similar, here wos asigniican diference for grade
Offisreferotandciognoses. Again. hose wih kordersoflearing diabily ondemotinalaisturbancewereinhigher
‘res, whereas the ADHD and oathymic dkorders were nlower grades. Therewere:o significant tferences for SC-

_masor ncexes. Norwas gender igiicantvariabo.

INTRODUCTION
Flom the day of conception, chicten ar ftequently
‘evaluated on some dimersion, whether it Is the
Contimetor engin on the sonogram. he APGAR scale ct
bith, of e Scholastic Achievement Tes (S47 10 enter
Ccolege. Adctional evaluation orenecessoryithe child
{does not perform adequately on scheduled evatuctions,
such os stondarted achievernent ts thoughout he
School year. At thot pont the child has repeatedly not
reoched ine benchmsk expected, the school or parent
‘may 90k adctionalassssmant to deterrine he souco
of dystuncton in the ocodemic crena. THs study
‘examined an archival sample of chicten refened by
pparensctine behest of pediaticans ot choo! personnel
ue to misbehavior of underachievement fy the
classcom.

(one ot he moe commen chichooduorderis Attention
Defic Hyperoctivty Disorder (ADHD) wih on estimated
Prevalence of thiee fo eight percent (Amercan
Pyenattc Association (APA),1994), It has been studied
‘@ensivay, paricuety nthe Unted Stats, whore ts
dognosed frequent. A numberof factors have been
reseatched os possble contbuiots to, or at least rk
factors of ADHD, Including tobocco smoke ond
envionment lead (Braun, Kahn, Froshich, Auge, &
Lanpneat, 2006). I here are envonmentol factor that
may contibute to the development of ADHD, the

‘communty or nation wil frequety pass lagistion to
protect chiiden, For instance, In the Untied States,
Ccommunties have become awate of the detimenta
cettects of secondary smote, even on the developing
fetus, and have resticted smoking fo certain, NypIcaly
wollventioted creas. Load paint has been restctad
‘even before several years: ye. recent specie toys
‘made in China were found tohave leadin he mater
‘Asubstantioliecatotsuch foyshasbeeninsttuled,
{Vpicaly there Isc fori history of ADHD or ADHD: ke
symptoms for chien ckognosed wih he dsorder. Thus
‘here I kel @ genetic component (Bederman etal,
1998). Faraone (2004) maintoined nat ADHD is an
expression of @ genetic atorder tat affects the
nouobiology of the tonto! lobes. However, recent
research has questioned the idea of ADHD as @ disorder
‘rasoose, fering to trainers developmental doloy
(the Associated Pres, 2007; Yochman, Omoy, &Pasush
+2006)

Most chicten wih ADHD dovelop comorbid astute
behave dsorder{enson. Mastin, & Cantwell 1997).
most common distuptive behavior disorder Is
‘Oppositional Defiant Disorder (00D), chatactoruod by
‘conic ergumentatveness. defence and anger butte
‘mor Insclous Conduct Disorder (C0), iwvohng serous
\olatons of societal noms Is presented in a quarter to
half of all cases (BexKey, OuPau, & MeMunay, 1990;

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Blodornan, Newcom, & Spich, 1991; Szamart Bove,
Offord, 1989).

Pttner, MeBrunett, Rathour, and Judice (2008)
‘attempted to separate fori factors, such os porentol
Practices and psychopathology, among. children
‘lagnosed with ADHD cisoclognosed with CD. Comotbid
CD was significantly associated with maternal
Pegative/inetiectve dscbine aswel as lack of maternal
warmth and involvement, paternal negatvenetioctve
dscipine, ond win patemal Antisocial Personatty
Dotder (APD), Tissot anew finding since oer stucies
have hypotnesved that impoverished attachment and
‘tfectve development conibuteto the development ot
APD. Negative netiectwe csciplne was ossocoted wih
higherrotes ofboth O00 ond CD. Dystunctonal parenting
can leod fo fallzes of soclaleation and atiectve:
dovelopment. ft can ako occur when @ chi hort
‘temperamental tats for father who has APD. Chien
wih ADHD ond CD hove moe leaning problems
europsychological dfs, and poorer prognosis wth
igh rates of entsoclal outcomes themseives Jenson et
4.1997)

The combination of ADHD and CD is associated wih an
fearter oe of onset for CO and more persistent ond
sevious conduct problems, (lohey, McBumet, 8 Loebet
2000),000 is corsidered 0 rider dlsorder than CD:
rovorholess!t fs not @ benevolent dotder since Its
ostociated wih functional empaiment ond distebod
Inferenonalreltionsn some cases It progressosto CD.
However, many cases of prepubescent ADHD and ODD
donot progress tothe propubescont fmol CO (Laneyet
2000)

Murs. Moosters ondRompetberg (2007) found that lower
levels of attention conto! was accompanies by higher
levels of arwety, aggression, depression, and ADKO.
‘Attention conto! was also negatively related o dstorion
of treat perceptions which suagetis hat ehcren who
splay low loves of attention conto ae more prone 10
petcaWve threats where none might ext When
Contoting for neuzotcm, atention contol remained
slgnticanty. and negatvely assoctated wih symptoms
(of orwety. depression, and ADHD.

There i accumulating evidence indicating that lower
love's of eto contol are related fo higher levels of
femotioncl and behavioral problems In chien
(Elonborg et ct, 2001), Murs anc Otencick (2005) ana
Rothbatt and Bates (1998) have categorized chickens
temperament factors into reactive ond regulative rt
Puinam, lls, and Rothoon (2002) idonttiod too
‘iological basedimensionsinchilcren of various apes:
neuoticiim, extaveslon, ond efortul contol. Rothbart
fond Bates (1998) maintained that neuroticism ond
fextverion re reactive tas, relexve behavior
splayed in challenging envionmental_ situations:
‘ttortul contol so regultive tat hot serves to tempor
react.

The Associated Press reported on Novernber 12, 2007,
‘hat @ Gotaled study conducted by Philp Shaw anc
tudth Rapoport, wih the National instute of Mentot
Heath found tna there con be as much os 0 thee-year
loginbron developmentorchicren with ADHO. Scansot
‘chicken win ADHD and thoee without ADKD determined
‘hat bron regions which suppress nonpropricte actions
‘ond moughts, focus attention, remember tings tor
moment fo moment, work for owards, and cont
movernent develop more slowiy ln chien with ADHD.
‘Some chicken outgrow ne csordor otersdonot

Ino typical ADHD evaluation, @ cinicln observes the
coh In the schoo! seting, or at least during the
‘sessment; the clinician wil ako take © Morough
{developmental history and intervew the child, parents,
‘ond teaches, Standardized fs fo r4@ out iret
olcioncies, leaning asobilies, ond emotional
problemsare administered aewel, The goats to ensure
‘hat the proper clagnoss is ossgned for ony order
\Wnen all data cre gathered, wnat sometimes emerge
fre other disorder, auch oF depression, leaning
sobities orsuspicion of emotonallstubance,
Dyathymiais a conic depression nats clagnosed ater
{period of one year in chien, These chicten ore
‘requentyIabie, hard to please, ond unhappy most of
the time. Other symptoms are poor oppette oF
‘overeating, nomnia of excestWve sleeping, ow got
‘esteem, poor concentration, and feelings of

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hopelessness (APA, 1994). The depressive symptoms can
be ststional or erection: ether ways. these chien
experience veryitie pleasure nie. itsimportot, tata
posse, 1o doternne whether lack of concertaton Is
Ctitoutabie to ADHD of the chronic depression, It
Cesimated that 5% of chikiren ond adolescents su
ftom major dopression, 4% rom cystyrni, and 1% orn
bipolar depression Kanno, 2006),

Emotonal distubonce is the term used fo describe
Chicten vith emotional orbehavoralssordes, Tstenot
‘2 S\H1V for: instead iis aterm use forthe cvs
wih Disobtes Education Act (DEA) egisation. Cire
‘18 consicered emotlonaly disurbed I hey ore unabie
‘0 lean, despite having adequate intligence, sensory
sill, ond heath. Other quattying citefa Include an
Inty fo sustain satisfactory interpersonal eatonships
‘wth peers and feachers, inappropriate types of behavior
oF feelings under nomal creurrstances, 0 pewasve
\epresion, or a tendency to somatosie or become
‘nsous when personal o schoo! problems occur (Code
‘of FederolRegultion, te 34, Section 00.71)
Leaming deabties nave taxtionaly been determined
by demonstrating a dscrepancy of greater than one:
slondesd deviaton between achievement score ond
billy score, Chien with specie leaing dsabitios
Dbvousyhave aificutyin achieving various academic
‘reas; Karvole ond Fomess (1996) conducted
comprehensive meto-anails of 162 studies ond
otornined that 75 percent of chien with LD fave
slgniicanty mor social stils dete than those without
wo

In summary, chicten refered for an ADHD evaiuation
‘may, ntact, meet the requirements for thot dlognos.
However cher dlsorcrs sometimes emerge instead of
(oF In action to, ADHD. Other Incivdvl or cormodbid
so%Gexs Include dystnymia, learning cisabites, ond
emotionalcstuance,

‘The purpose of the Curent study wos 10 Investigate
whether cores ftom the Wechsler ittigence Scale for
CChicten, tic Eaton (WiSC-), conelated wih eventuot
‘dagnoses of chien refered fo academic dius.

‘Athough abbttery, such s he WISC:II, an achievernent
fest. such os the Wide Range Actievernent Test, Thiré
Eatlon (WRAPS), the Wechsler Individual Achievement
Test (WA, tho Woodcoctslohrson Revsod (Wu, and
‘he Behavioral Assessment stom or Chic ASC) wh
|ndviduo, parent, ond teacher forms is tYoically used,
cniy ne WSC-Iwasinvesigatodin the prosenstudy,
Method

PottclpantsIncuded 43 chikiren who had been refered
{0 a pivate practioner 1o determine cagnoss ond
‘reatment tecommendatons for academic eiicuioe
reported in schools. PareisIiioted the reteral othe
‘vate prociionss a eensed paychologs. OF he 43
Chicken, 26 were male and 17 female Agesrangedtor
s8c10 16 yoors. Each evaluation was conducted over 6
sos of sssons lasing from 60 to 90 minutes. Table 1
dspiayetne mean agesby sex

NchWol records of the poricipant children were
‘examined. Eochindivualchidhad been adminstored
‘he Wectslerinfeligance Scote for Chiltan, Mi ation
(1SC-: Wechsler 1991) a8 pat of « ganeral dognostic
‘batery. Recal nat the battery consisted o he WISC-8L
‘en achievernent test and the BASC, The WESC: anc
Cognos records of the 43 chidten were studled to
determine corelations with childhood disorders,
prtculaty attention deficit hyperactivity ckordor ADHD).
Rosi

For purposes of nase, the clognoses ware chstred
Info ADHO/Dysryrria ond LOVED. Data were cnayzed
sing @ safes of ancyses of vatonce (ANOVA). though
12 number of onciyses wore conducted. the alpha
‘emo!ned ot .08 slnce this wos considered os an
lexioitey study. No signiicant variance emerged
when examining the WISC-II resus. However futher
‘naivis revealed a sinticant atteence for ape
(copendent vatabe) afer Fy = 4988,p =
IRESEARCH PAPERS

005} ond clagnosesfrndependen! vaxiabe). Those wih
<sordess such § fearing lsoblty ond ernotonot
‘dstubance tended to be older win a mean of 12.38
‘yeas whle the ADHD ond dystnymic corde tended to
be younger wih a eon of 8.65 yeors, Table 2 deploys
‘he desciptve statstes for ages by dognosic groups
‘ables 3 ond 4 display he intligence quotiants and
Indones, respectively, for each dlognostic category.

7

‘Accorng fo Schetfe post hoc anata, he ognostic
Ccotegoties of ADHD tnotiente, ADHD Med, ond
Dyathymic were signitconty diferent ftom the LD, ED,
‘Omer categoy.

Simlaty, there wos 0 signiicant atference for grade
(cependentvortie) tis efenal Fsay = 46.341, 0 =
(004) ond diagnoses (ndependent variable). Again.
‘hose win sores of learning asabity anc ernotonat
‘dstubonce were in higher grades clustered ot the
seventh grade, whereas the ADHD ond dystnyic
sores were clustered round hic rade. There were
‘0 signiicant ferences for WSC-IN As oF indexes. Nor
0s Sor @ significant vaioble. Toblo 5 lsploys tho
descrpive statics for rodesby dlagnostc groups
Discusion

‘These eeu wouldseemtolndcate that hereisagreater
tolerance for LD and emotional dstutbance oF
‘compared io ADKD and aystyrnia, The eartetrefenalot
[ADHD reveas hat the <order much mere ctype

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fcacerenenen | 10 | ear | vsce [om fiom [ww [orm
recouaogrnaen | 10 | oxo | vase | oom | vow | com | same
Sn ee
Focemmoosaan | v9 | ose | wie | oso | vom | am | camo
recs soos 7 | v2i2 | an | 0 | rec | vom | e200
Wwescorenwun | 5 | wm | sm | om [eco |e | wm
Fecsmscomncen | 5 | ona | roma | vom | oem | oro | oom
oar
= @ | mm [se [ow [ooo [oreo [moo
amore [R=msOvmet | 2 | wens [am [sro [rm [ine [ras
recaaraoad « [aw [as [am fm [ao [am
Tobe 4 Deno Stic or Wechserriigence Soa fr Crcren
"he aon (Cae ores Summary fy agncae Bese
oom ‘Altimes toppearsthat chin wllhave cornbld ADHD
‘ond dyathymia; when those coses aise, itis cticut to
oe coe |ufuer| = |atwmer|ucrm|iesn| vase | ascertain which is mere relevant. Perhaot chicken
‘become depressed when they ere unable fo perfor
levormnelilscofres} co | soo | sco} am | S°2d8TICOLY ce fo ADHD symptoms. In that cose,
rome \WoUS be wor fo Heat the ADHD fist and watt to
rovorwes ofan eas] sco | e00 | 200] 100] determine ithe decressve symptoms abate. At oer
slaso| se | 200 | aco | aco | aco | tes: the depression is so severe wih suicidal ideation
‘nat he dopresson must be addressed fist and then he
tamoner [sore }sis] tao | ram | roo | 72 | ADH. Ofcourse, he determination hore s mest otlon

able 5. Destpve aster Gade by Dageste ON Gout
fond eisconcering to the fornly ond school Yet
‘common sense molntans that earler intervention
inetootes management of the symptoms and more
‘overage tke progresioninschool

clicalhudgment
‘The osuts give some vay fo the DSM-IV requremnent
‘hat ADHD symptoms must have appeared atthe oge ot
seven year, Usual, hyperacivty ond the inablty 10
focus wil cert feachers ond parents when chien ore

=

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‘younger because the scents make Iie progress and
may be delayed in learning to read and retain bose
mathematics concepts. 1ypically, chicken must be
erposedtoaveety fearing techniques betore bong
lagnosedosleomingasabled

Ot couse, age ondigrade arehighyconelated. Thus, s
ot suing that similar outcomes emerged for both
varies

LUmitaions include smat sample. though, the:
Probobities cre rather robust, « larger sample would
Solisty contidencein he fincngs. Another sue wos he
umber of onalyses originally performed. Mor stingent
conto! of the olpna ond number of analyses would
onsrotherocbity ofthe incngs.

Future research might continue to more coretuiy
olineate the predctor aspects of ADHD. Development
‘of eatyierventions coud possibly lessen the xobabiy
‘hat comorbid dss would develop. Throughout the
oper, Impict inthe rater is tho notton that early
Intervention of poramountImpertence In dealing wth
‘those corde,

Reterences

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[ABOUT THE AUTHOR

+ PotesrofPyetology Sarason Se Uv
‘Poles oPacroogy SamHton Sixes

‘Rte Deparment otPratgy Som Hoxton Statens
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tsncn aw woccver nomered enspqctoherpy an ener ans eer COMUNE PUD so gO

Irecughterprceprccoe.

5 ran orotesc ofpceiogy hn he Deparment of Pyle nd rst Sam Howton Se Une
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Irennin2, reteschocn arcperonlly ond apodeme ceeerert._ Hex cotuted Wh puDo aa NO

poets

Dr AoryBuce ko pees of pxyctg he Deportent of Pyctaogy nd Pisco ot Sam Houston Ske Une
(i). Meuroerpocvote werk Wash elgon arch gradte Wen dower Py. He ase MOY
‘cepocter ct SV netang 25 yeas oscar I PHCNODGY Alpes servesx COON of eres Og NN

Iredepsrment

w [rogers Jour on FASS PYF VEL TN 3 = Novara’ 207 cary 2008