ERIC EJ1046961: Act Local or Global?: Comparing Student Experiences in Domestic and International Service-Learning Programs

2013·0.08 MB·English

by  ERIC

Michigan Journal of Community Service Learning Fall 2013, pp.31-40
Act Local or Global?: Comparing Student Experiences in
Domestic and International Service-Learning Programs
Elizabeth Niehaus
University of Nebraska Lincoln
Léna Kavaliauskas Crain
University of Maryland College Park
International service-learning (ISL) is a popular way to facilitate student growth in the areas of cross-cul-
tural learning and civic engagement. However, many have questioned whether international trips provide any
added value compared to domestic service-learning. Using the context of Alternative Break programs, this
study compares student experiences in similarly structured international and domestic service-learning pro-
grams. In doing so, it contributes to the larger debate over the relative costs and benefits of international ser-
vice-learning programs.
Over the past several decades, civic engagement separate yet related fields of service-learning, study
and global citizenship have become increasingly abroad, and international education (Bringle &
popular goals in higher education (American Council Hatcher, 2011). ISL programs can take a variety of
on Education, 2002; Campus Compact, 2011; forms, including single courses that take place entire-
Commission on the Abraham Lincoln Study Abroad ly in host-country (often 6-8 weeks in length), sand-
Fellowship, 2005; Ewers, 2009). Accordingly, the wich programs involving a shorter time in a foreign
prevalence of service-learning opportunities and country within an on-campus academic course
study abroad experiences has swelled, and programs before and/or after the ISL experience (which may or
blending the two have emerged. International service may not also include a domestic service-learning
learning (ISL) is a popular way to facilitate student experience), international practicum or internship
growth in the areas of cross-cultural learning and experiences (Jones & Steinberg, 2011), or co-curric-
civic engagement. However, some scholars and prac- ular programs such as Alternative Breaks that, while
titioners have argued that cross-cultural learning can not credit-bearing experiences, often include struc-
happen within the United States (Jacoby, 2009; tured reflection and learning (Break Away, n.d.a;
Marmon, 2007), and as such, international programs Niehaus, 2012a).
may not be necessary. The purpose of this study is to A number of studies have pointed to the positive
explore this very question: to investigate the possible outcomes associated with ISL participation. In one of
differences that may exist between students’ experi- the most comprehensive studies of ISL, Kiely (2004)
ences of international and domestic service-learning interviewed 22 students who had taken part in an ISL
programs using data from Alternative Breaks. program in Nicaragua over a period of seven years.
According to Bringle and Hatcher (2011), ISL is: He found that the ISL experience had a profound
effect on participants, and identified changes in stu-
A structured academic experience in another
dents’ worldviews along six dimensions: political,
country in which students (a) participate in an
moral, intellectual, cultural, personal, and spiritual.
organized service activity that addresses identi-
fied community needs; (b) learn from direct The changes in students’ worldviews were also
interaction and cross-cultural dialogue with oth- accompanied by evidence of action or intended
ers; and (c) reflect on the experience in such a action; for example, political transformation includ-
way as to gain further understanding of course ed advocacy on behalf of the poor or efforts to raise
content, a deeper understanding of global and awareness about poverty, and personal transforma-
intercultural issues, a broader appreciation of the
tion involved efforts to live a more socially conscious
host country and the discipline, and an enhanced
lifestyle and change career or educational goals.
sense of their own responsibilities as citizens,
Participants in Kiely’s study “‘envisioned’ changes to
locally and globally. (p. 19)
their lifestyles, relationships, and social policies to
International service-learning bridges the three coincide with their newly found critical awareness of
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Niehaus and Crain
the systemic forces underlying the economic dispari- abroad to gain cross-cultural experience; these types
ties, health problems, and poverty witnessed in of experiences can be facilitated much closer to
Nicaragua” (p. 10). Upon returning to the United home. Jacoby’s argument is backed up by some stud-
States, students struggled to integrate their changed ies on domestic service-learning that have identified
worldviews into their lives and to implement their cross-cultural learning outcomes associated with
envisioned plans. Kiely labeled this phenomenon as these experiences. For example, in a case study of
the “chameleon complex,” which “represent[ed] the seminary students placed in local, cross-cultural min-
internal struggle between conforming to, and resist- istry practica, Marmon (2007) found that these stu-
ing, dominant norms, rituals, and practices in the dents experienced transformative cross-cultural
United States” (p. 15). learning within their own communities, similar to the
Similar to Kiely’s findings on the long-term nature learning that would have occurred through interna-
of student transformation from ISL, Tonkin’s (2004) tional experience. In another case study, Ferrence and
report on the effects of ISL programs associated with Bell (2004) studied 25 undergraduate education
the International Partnership for Service Learning majors who took part in a two-week cultural immer-
and Leadership emphasized the profound and lasting sion with a Spanish-speaking Latino community in
impacts of international service-learning. Compared Georgia. Similar to Marmon’s findings, Ferrence and
to students in traditional study abroad programs, stu- Bell found that many of the culture shock and immer-
dents who had participated in ISL demonstrated sion experiences of these students paralleled those
deeper intellectual and moral changes, greater experienced by students travelling abroad. Students
demonstration of leadership qualities, and higher lev- in this program reported that through their own expe-
els of culture shock and reentry shock than conven- rience being an outsider and not understanding what
tional study abroad students (Tonkin). was going on around them (most students did not
Other studies, primarily small case studies, have speak Spanish), they gained a greater understanding
reported similar outcomes related to ISL participa- of cultural differences and empathy for immigrant
tion. In these studies, students reported that they children who might be in their future classrooms.
changed their major (King, 2006; Lewis & They also came to a new understanding of the mis-
Niesenbaum, 2005) or career goals (King; Pisano, match of immigrant children’s cultural background
2007); committed to integrating their new knowledge and the culture of U.S. classrooms, particularly in the
into their future career (Ferrence & Bell, 2004); ways in which lessons presume cultural knowledge
explored different academic courses (Lewis & that may be different for Latino children.
Niesenbaum); desired to participate in future study or While the studies by Marmon (2007) and Ferrence
travel abroad (Lewis & Niesenbaum); learned about and Bell (2004) point to the potential for domestic
and gained empathy for the host culture (Ferrence & service-learning experiences to be just as profound
Bell; Pagano, 2003); felt that they had changed as and transformative as ISL, others have argued that
people (Pisano, 2007); demonstrated an increased international experiences are fundamentally differ-
efficacy to help others (Elble, 2009); and became ent. Kraft (2002) argued that the physical travel and
more aware of social problems (Elble). cultural and language competencies necessitated by
While a variety of studies summarized above have ISL amplify the cross-cultural learning that takes
pointed to the potential for ISL programs to facilitate place abroad relative to domestic programs with a
student learning and development, it is unclear cross-cultural component. A few empirical studies
whether or not this is any different than the learning have supported Kraft’s assertion. As there is little
and development facilitated by domestic service- research directly comparing international and domes-
learning (e.g., Eyler & Giles, 1999, among many oth- tic service-learning, most of this evidence comes
ers). Unfortunately, existing research that compares from the larger study abroad literature.
experiences in international and domestic service- In one study, Couper (2001) compared students
learning is limited and somewhat contradictory; who had studied abroad with those who had traveled
some studies have asserted more powerful outcomes domestically. That study found that those who had
for domestic service-learning experiences, others studied abroad and experienced a different culture
have demonstrated the added benefit of international did not find personal change back home, such as a
experiences, and still others have found no conclu- new job or a move to a different location, to be as
sive differences in the skills and attitudes resulting stressful; because of their international experience,
between the two types of service-learning. changes at home were much less traumatic. Although
As many scholars have asserted, cross-cultural not specifically focused on ISL, Couper’s findings
exposure can be a benefit of both domestic and inter- point to the potential for international experiences to
national service-learning experiences. In fact, Jacoby provide greater cognitive dissonance for students
(2009) argued that students do not need to travel than domestic experiences.
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Domestic and International Service-Learning
In another comparison of study abroad and domes- munity. Break Away, a national organization that pro-
tic travel, Uehara (1986) surveyed 96 study abroad motes and supports AB programs, defines an
returnees and a similar group of students who had Alternative Breakas a program that:
travelled domestically. While his intention was to use
places teams of college or high school students
the domestic travelers as a control group, his study
in communities to engage in community ser-
provides some evidence as to the differences between
vice… during their summer, fall, winter, week-
international and domestic travel. He found that stu-
end or spring breaks… The objectives of an
dents who had studied abroad experienced signifi-
alternative break program are to involve college
cantly more reentry shock than students who had trav-
students in community-based service projects
elled domestically. He also found that the only factor
and to give students opportunities to learn about
measured that was significantly associated with the problems faced by members of communities
increased levels of reentry shock was the extent to with whom they otherwise may have had little or
which students’ values had changed while abroad. no direct contact. (Break Away, n.d. a)
These values related to relationships with family and
Research on AB programs has identified a number of
friends; views about male-female relationships, cloth-
student learning outcomes similar to those found
ing, religion, and individuality; ways of using money;
through domestic and international SL. For example,
career goals; and achievement-oriented behavior.
An important limitation of both of these studies is research suggests that participating in an AB experi-
that they compared programs and experiences that ence encourages students to step outside of their
were very different in nature—study abroad and gen- comfort zone and interact with and learn from people
eral domestic travel—making it difficult to isolate the different from themselves (Jones, Robbins, &
difference between international and domestic experi- LePeau, 2009; Jones, Rowan-Kenyon, Ireland,
ences. Marmon (2007) and Ferrence and Bell (2004) Niehaus, & Skendall, 2012; Niehaus, 2012b;
only looked at domestic service-learning experiences, Skendall, 2012); influences students’ academic
providing no comparison to ISL. Both ISL and domes- major, career plans, and intentions to volunteer,
tic service-learning have been shown to contribute to engage in advocacy, study abroad, and travel abroad
positive learning outcomes for students (Astin & Sax, (Ivory, 1998; Jones et al., 2009; Jones et al., 2012;
1998; Astin, Sax & Avalos, 1999; Chaison, 2008; Niehaus, 2012a); challenges students’ values (Jones
Denson, Vogelgesang, & Saenz, 2005; Dockter, 2004; et al., 2012; Rhoads & Neururer, 1998); helps stu-
Elble, 2009; Eyler & Giles, 1999; Jones & Abes, 2004; dents learn about and personalize complex social
Lough, 2010), but few if any studies directly compare issues (Chaison, 2008; Jones et al., 2009; Jones et al.,
similarly structured domestic and international ser- 2012); and increases students’ self-confidence and
vice-learning experiences. This lack of direct compar- sense of empowerment (Chaison; Rhodes &
ison makes it difficult to isolate the effect of the inter- Neururer), sense of social responsibility (Cooper,
national location on student experiences and to ascer- 2002), and commitment to helping others (Jones et
tain if there is a value-added when service-learning is al., 2009; McElhaney, 1998; Rhodes & Neururer).
experienced internationally. Break Away identifies eight components of a qual-
ity alternative break (Break Away, n.d. b): strong
Alternative Break Programs
direct service, orientation, education, training, reflec-
One of the challenges in comparing international tion, reorientation, diversity, and alcohol/drug free. In
and domestic service-learning is that these programs exploring outcomes related to Break Away’s eight
tend to be fundamentally different. Domestic service- components, along with other key program charac-
learning often takes place for a few hours each week teristics identified in the literature on Alternative
over the course of a semester, while international ser- Breaks, study abroad, and international and domestic
vice-learning is more likely to span a briefer period service-learning, Niehaus (2012a) found that AB-
but on a more intense basis. One way to overcome participating students’ future plans were positively
this challenge is by studying Alternative Break (AB) related to:
programs, which take place either within the United
• the extent to which students engaged with the
States or internationally. While there is some diversi-
service activities and community, were emo-
ty within the design and execution of AB programs,
tionally and physically challenged by the expe-
they provide a venue for comparing similarly struc-
rience, learned about social issues related to
tured international and domestic service-learning
their AB trip, and found the AB trip to be an
experiences.
emotionally intense experience;
Alternative breaks have existed for more than 30
years as a means of engaging students in service pro- • the frequency with which students interacted
jects involving travel outside their immediate com- with community members and host site staff;
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Niehaus and Crain
• the amount students reported learning from vice-learning experience; in the case of the present
community members, host site staff, and other study, comparing domestic and international experi-
college students on their trips; ences. In doing so, this study fills the gap in the exist-
ing service-learning literature by providing a direct
• the frequency with which students wrote in an
comparison of similarly structured international and
individual journal; and
domestic service-learning experiences, contributing
• the comprehensiveness of the orientation and
to exploration of whether there is value-added to
reorientation experiences.
international service-learning programs compared to
Niehaus (2012a) did compare the influence of domestics ones.
international versus domestic service-learning on
Methods
students’ future plans, and found that students who
had participated in international trips were more like- Data: The National Survey of Alternative Breaks
ly than those on domestic trips to report that their AB
experience influenced their intentions or plans to Data for this study come from the 2011 National
study or travel abroad. After accounting for a wide Survey of Alternative Breaks (NSAB), a multi-insti-
variety of other program characteristics, the interna- tutional survey of AB participants (Niehaus, 2012a).
tional program location was not a significant predic- The NSAB included more than 2000 student respon-
tor of the influence of the AB program on students’ dents (an overall 35% response rate), representing
major, career plans, or plans to volunteer or engage in almost 450 different AB trips at 97 colleges and uni-
advocacy. However, Niehaus did not examine versities across the United States. Due to missing
whether the influence of program location on student data in variables of interest, this study utilized a sam-
outcomes may be mediated by differences in stu- ple of 1679 total respondents from the survey.
dents’ actual experiences on domestic versus interna- The NSAB survey was administered online to stu-
tional programs (e.g., whether the differences in out- dents within approximately three weeks of returning
comes, or lack thereof, may be due to factors such as to campus after their 2011 Alternative Spring Break
the quality of the service experience or the amount of experience. A random stratified sample of institu-
reflection, rather than due to the program location tions was selected to participate based on a list of
itself). To date, no studies have directly compared Alternative Break programs developed by Break
international and domestic Alternative Breaks to Away, and included both Break Away member cam-
determine if students’ experiences on these trips puses and non-members. All programs in the study
(e.g., engagement with the community, service qual- lasted approximately one week and involved commu-
ity, reflection, etc.) differ in any fundamental way. nity service and service-learning activities. Students
responding to the survey were asked a variety of
Purpose
questions on their background, prior experiences, the
The prior literature on international and domestic details of their trip, to what extent they felt that their
service-learning is limited in two key ways. First, few AB experience would influence their future plans
studies compare international and domestic experi- (e.g., career or volunteering), and what experiences
ences (either in the context of service-learning or in they had upon returning to campus.
study abroad more generally), and those that do have Consistent with other available samples of students
been unable to identify truly equivalent international participating in Alternative Breaks specifically
and domestic experiences upon which to base that (Skendall, 2012), or study abroad and service-learning
comparison. Second, studies that have examined the more generally (Gasiorski, 2009; Institute for
influence of international versus domestic program International Education, 2011), the students in this
locations in predicting student outcomes have sample were predominantly female (79%) and White
stopped short of exploring the different types of (72%), with smaller percentages of Asian/Pacific
experiences that students may have in international Islander (9%), Multiracial (6%), African American
and domestic programs, which may mediate the rela- (6%), and Hispanic (5%) students. Most students par-
tionship between program location and outcomes. ticipated in domestic (i.e., within the United States)
As such, the purpose of this study is to identify Alternative Breaks (83%) with a smaller number par-
what differences (if any) exist between the experi- ticipating in international Breaks (17%). More than
ences of students participating in domestic and inter- half of the students (54%) in the sample attended doc-
national Alternative Break service-learning trips. In toral/research universities, while 28% attended mas-
their recommendations for the design of research ter’s universities, 16% baccalaureate colleges, and 1%
examining international service-learning, Bringle, associates degree-granting institutions. The majority
Hatcher, and Williams (2011) encouraged the com- of students (61%) attended public institutions, while
parison of program characteristics that shape the ser- 25% attended private religious institutions and 14%
34
Domestic and International Service-Learning
attended private, non-religious institutions. students reported interacting with community
Students responding to the survey went on trips to members or host site staff;
235 different locations. The most popular domestic
• Community/staff/student difference: Three sep-
destinations were New Orleans (9%), Atlanta (4%),
arate variables reflecting the extent to which
and Washington, DC (3%), while the most popular
students felt that community members, host
international destinations were Honduras, the
site staff, or other college students participating
Dominican Republic, Guatemala and Belize (each
in their trip were different from themselves;
representing approximately 1% of respondents). AB
• Community/staff/student learning: Three sepa-
trips focused on more than 50 different social issues,
rate variables reflecting the amount students
the most common of which were affordable housing
reported learning from community members,
(15%), environmental issues (11%), and education
host site staff, and other college students par-
(10%). During their AB experience, students
ticipating in their AB trip;
engaged in a variety of different service tasks, includ-
ing manual labor (59%), direct involvement with • Intensity of the experience: Four-item scale
people receiving service such as tutoring children (alpha = .760) reflecting the extent to which stu-
(31%), and preparing and/or delivering meals (6%). dents agreed that they experienced strong emo-
Most students in the sample participated in co-cur- tions, their AB trip was an intense experience, it
ricular AB experiences, but 8% participated in an AB allowed them to experience something totally
as part of an academic course. new, and it caused them to re-examine their
beliefs about the root causes of social issues;
Variables
• Emotional challenge: The extent to which stu-
In the conceptual framework for the NSAB,
dents felt that they were emotionally chal-
Niehaus (2012a) brought together the existing
lenged by their experience;
research on Alternative Breaks, domestic and inter-
• Physical challenge: The extent to which stu-
national service-learning, and study abroad to identi-
dents felt that they were physically challenged
fy the types of experiences within Alternative Break
by their experience;
programs that may contribute to student outcomes.
The composite variables used in this study are those • Social issues: Six-item scale (alpha = .844)
that, in prior work with the NSAB data, Niehaus reflecting the extent to which students agreed
(2012a) created using exploratory principle compo- that they were able to see the larger context of
nents analysis (Lattin, Carroll, & Green, 2003); other the social issue addressed by their AB experi-
variables were operationalized using single items on ence, that they came to a greater understanding
the survey. Each variable reflects an aspect of stu- of and were able to connect real people to that
dents’ experiences before, during, and after AB trips social issue, they were able to come to a greater
that, according to prior research (e.g., Niehaus, understanding of the region where their trip took
2012a; Niehaus, 2012b; Niehaus & Rivera, 2013), place, and they were able to connect what they
are key predictors of student outcomes. These vari- learned in their AB experience to other things
ables included: they have learned outside of the classroom;
• Service engagement: Six-item scale (alpha = • Reflection: Four-item scale (alpha = .822)
.806) reflecting the extent to which students felt reflecting the frequency with which students
that they were making positive contributions, spent time as a group reflecting on their expe-
had important levels of responsibility, were riences, discussed the impact of their service
active participants rather than observers, work with other students or student trip lead-
engaged in a variety of tasks, and received input ers, or engaged in other activities as a group
and appreciation from on-site supervisors; that helped them reflect on their experiences;
• Community engagement: Five-item scale • Journaling: How frequently students wrote in
(alpha = .875) reflecting the extent to which an individual journal;
students worked directly with and were able to
• Orientation: The total number of activities in
develop relationships with members of the
which students reported engaging prior to their
community, the community was involved in
trip (out of seven possible choices), including:
the design and execution of the project, and
learning about the mission and objectives of
students felt that they were meeting communi-
the agency or organization with which they
ty-identified needs;
were serving; learning about the history or cul-
• Community/staff interaction: Two separate ture of the location to which they travelled;
variables reflecting the frequency with which receiving training in skills necessary for the
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Niehaus and Crain
project they would work on; learning about the and reorientation programs, more emotionally
social issue being addressed by their trip; dis- intense experiences, feeling that community mem-
cussing culture shock or cross-cultural com- bers and host site staff were more different from
munication skills; and themselves, more emotionally challenging experi-
ences, and learning more about social issues. At the
• Reorientation: The total number of activities in
same time, there were a number of areas that showed
which students reported engaging prior to their
no difference between international and domestic
trip (out of 8 possible choices) including: dis-
programs, including the extent to which students felt
cussing their experiences with the other stu-
physically challenged by their experience, the extent
dents on their trip, other AB trips, or other
to which they engaged in the service activities, and
(non-participating) students; and receiving
their interactions with other students on their trip (see
information on reverse culture shock, other
Table 1).
ways to build on their AB experience, or other
community service and service-learning Limitations
opportunities.
Before moving on to a discussion of the results of
Data Analysis this study, it is important to first note a few key lim-
itations. First, this study focuses on one particular
To determine whether or not the key program
type of service-learning experience—Alternative
experiences described above differed for internation-
Breaks. While this may speak to differences between
al versus domestic programs, this study first
international and domestic service-learning more
employed multivariate analysis of variance (MANO-
broadly, the results are not generalizable across all
VA), which was selected to determine the signifi-
types of service-learning programs. Second, this
cance of each variable as well as the impact of vari-
study only addresses the question of whether stu-
ables in tandem. When utilizing a MANOVA, mod-
dents’ experiencesof international and domestic AB
erately high levels of correlation are desirable, as this
programs are fundamentally the same. The results of
indicates that variables exert individual influence.
this study can inform the larger discussion about the
As a post-hoc analysis, discriminant function
benefits of international service-learning, but final
analysis (DFA) was employed to determine whether
judgment on the value of international service-learn-
the presence of certain variables is valid in predicting
ing is still up for debate.
group membership (Pedhazur, 1997). In this case,
Third, we were limited in our analysis to those vari-
variables from the NSAB data set were used to
ables present in the NSAB data. While other variables
attempt to classify AB participants into either domes-
such as experiences with language and culture may be
tic or international program groups based on out-
important differences between international and
comes associated with their experience. This allowed
domestic Alternative Breaks, we were not able to
the researchers to determine which student experi-
include these in our analysis. Similarly, a fourth limi-
ences differed most between international and
tation is that we were unable to account for an array of
domestic AB trips.
variations in program quality in the programs repre-
Results sented in the data. For example, staff working with
AB programs may spend more time intentionally
The MANOVA analysis demonstrated that as a designing international trips than domestic trips due
group, the variables described above do differ to the more complicated nature of international travel.
between international and domestic AB experiences In fact, as discussed below, our findings do point to
(Wilkes’ Lambda=.880, p<.001). Post-hoc DFA key differences between students’ experiences on
showed that almost all of the individual variables dif- international and domestic trips that would seem to be
fered significantly based on whether the student par- independent of program location, such as the amount
ticipated in an international or domestic AB trip, and of time spent on reflection and the comprehensiveness
had to do with engaging with the community, inter- of the orientation and reorientation experiences.
acting across difference, and the intensity of the Finally, this study does not speak directly to stu-
experience. According to the DFA results, compared dent outcomes. However, the variables considered in
to students on domestic trips, students participating this study are those that have been found to be pre-
in international trips on average reported significant- dictive of a number of student outcomes (Niehaus,
ly more frequent community and host site staff inter- 2012a, 2012b; Niehaus & Rivera, 2013), and as such
action, higher levels of community engagement, they are important to consider when examining key
learning more from the community and host site differences between students’ experiences on interna-
staff, more frequent individual journaling and group tional and domestic AB programs. For example, var-
reflection activities, more comprehensive orientation ious combinations of these variables have been found
36
Domestic and International Service-Learning
Table 1
Group Means and DFA Coefficients
International Domestic p-value Standardized Canonical Structured
Discriminant Function Matrix
Coefficients1 Coefficients2
Community Interaction 3.63 2.90 <.001 .380 .597
Journaling 2.10 1.36 <.001 .427 .505
Orientation 6.06 5.24 <.001 .377 .502
Community Engagement 21.26 19.00 <.001 .288 .494
Community Learning 3.71 3.35 <.001 .025 .409
Community Difference 2.76 2.41 <.001 .134 .328
Intensity of the Experience 21.10 19.89 <.001 .019 .327
Staff Difference 1.92 1.62 <.001 .211 .299
Emotional Challenge 4.13 3.82 <.001 .013 .273
Staff Interaction 3.72 3.43 <.001 .261 .271
Reflection 12.46 11.71 .001 -.014 .228
Reorientation 6.04 5.72 .004 -.016 .191
Social Issues 22.68 22.15 .006 -.105 .184
Staff Learning 3.33 3.14 .006 .143 .184
Physical Challenge 3.36 3.22 .083 .133 .116
Service Engagement 26.42 26.57 .523 -.330 -.043
Student Learning 3.33 3.37 .501 -.152 -.045
Student Difference 1.73 1.71 .821 .002 .015
Note: italicized p-values indicate significant mean differences (<.05).
1Indicates the importance of each variable in predicting group assignment; partial correlation.
2Indicates the correlation between discriminant score and each variable; whole correlation.
to be positive predictors of the influence of the AB levels of interaction and engagement with communi-
experience on students’ major, career plans, and ty members. These types of opportunities to interact
intentions to volunteer, engage in advocacy, and across difference are one of the key features of ser-
study or travel abroad (Niehaus, 2012a); the extent to vice-learning programs that facilitate student learn-
which students are able to learn from diverse others ing. For example, Eyler and Giles (1999) found the
through their AB experience (Niehaus, 2012b); and “opportunity to work with people from diverse ethnic
the extent to which the AB experience influences’ groups during the course of their service-learning”
students’ religious identity and commitment (p. 177) to be a significant predictor of decreasing
(Niehaus & Rivera, 2013). stereotypes and increased tolerance for diversity, per-
sonal development, improved problem solving and
Discussion
critical thinking skills, and perspective transforma-
International service-learning is an increasingly tion. Similarly, in a study of an Alternative Break pro-
popular way to bridge the internationalization and gram in New York City, Jones and colleagues (2009)
civic engagement goals of colleges and universities. found that the “face-to-face interactions and the
Despite the many positive outcomes associated with opportunity to develop relationships with people liv-
participating in ISL (Elble, 2009; Ferrence & Bell, ing with HIV/AIDS made a deep impression on par-
2004; Kiely, 2004, 2005; King, 2006; Lewis & ticipants” (p. 17). Even a year after the experience it
Niesenbaum, 2005; Pagano, 2003; Pisano, 2007), was the personal interactions with people living with
some have argued that students can get an equivalent HIV/AIDS that stood out in the students’ memories.
cross-cultural experience within the United States Related to the enhanced opportunities for interac-
(Jacoby, 2009; Marmon, 2007). This study directly tion and engagement with community members on
compared similarly structured international and international trips, students on international trips
domestic service-learning Alternative Break pro- reported learning more from both community mem-
grams to identify what, if any, differences may exist bers and host site staff. This is consistent with Kraft’s
in students’ experiences on these trips. (2002) argument that the physical travel and cultural
The results of this study show that there are signif- and language competencies necessitated by service
icant and meaningful differences in students’ experi- abroad amplify the cross-cultural learning. This sim-
ences of international and domestic Alternative ilarly echoes Couper’s (2001) finding that students
Breaks along key variables that have been shown to studying abroad experience more culture shock than
predict positive student outcomes. Of particular note students travelling domestically, and Uehara’s (1986)
is that students on international trips reported higher finding that students studying abroad experienced
37
Niehaus and Crain
more re-entry shock upon returning home than stu- experiences were not valuable. Students participating
dents travelling domestically. in these domestic programs still had relatively intense
The focus on learning from diverse others through experiences and had the opportunity to interact with
Alternative Breaks is particularly important, as learn- and learn from people different from themselves.
ing from community members has been shown to be Despite this, the results of this study clearly point to
a significant predictor of the influence of the the importance of considering the advantages that an
Alternative Break experience on students’ major, international program location might bring to the
career plans, and intentions to volunteer, engage in experience.
advocacy, and travel abroad. Similarly, interacting This study has a number of implications for prac-
with host site staff has been found to be a significant tice and research. First, in pointing to the unique dif-
predictor of the influence of the AB experience on ferences between students’ experiences with interna-
students’ career plans, major, and plans to travel tional and domestic service-learning, this study pro-
abroad (Niehaus, 2012a). vides support for practitioners seeking to facilitate
Compared to students on domestic trips, students international experiences for students. Although the
who had participated in international AB trips report- focus of this study was on Alternative Breaks, the
ed significantly higher levels of intensity. Kiely findings may have implications for supporting other
(2005) noted the importance of intensity in the pro- types of international service-learning and study
gram experience. He noted that high-intensity disso- abroad. More research is needed to determine if the
nance, which included experiences such as “witness- differences found within the context of AB programs
ing extreme forms of poverty, hunger, scarcity, and also exist in other program contexts.
disease” (p. 11), is the type that “often causes power- Second, in identifying the differences that do exist
ful emotions and confusion and leads study partici- between international and domestic AB experiences,
pants to reexamine their existing knowledge and this study provides guidance for practitioners seeking
assumptions” (p. 11, emphasis in original). This was to enhance the cross-cultural learning in domestic
distinct from low-level dissonance which often had to experiences. Because one of the key differences by
do with logistical and practical issues such as food program location was opportunities to interact with
and water, language barriers, and dealing with new and learn from community members, practitioners
surroundings, all of which lead to instrumental learn- facilitating domestic experiences may want to pay
ing but not transformative learning. Niehaus (2012a) particular attention to this aspect of the AB or other
also found intensity to be a significant predictor of domestic service-learning experience. Similarly,
the influence of the AB experience on students’ plans practitioners may need to help students participating
to volunteer after returning to campus. in domestic experiences see and understand the cul-
It is interesting to note that there were a number of tural differences that do exist between themselves
areas where domestic and international trips varied and community members or host site staff. These dif-
that seem like they would be independent of the pro- ferences may be more obvious in international expe-
gram location. For example, the frequency with riences, but are still present and important learning
which students reflected on their experiences, either opportunities in domestic contexts.
individually through journaling or through group dis- Finally, more research is needed to better under-
cussions, is more a matter of program structure than stand how students make meaning of international
of program location. Similarly, the orientation and and domestic cross-cultural experiences in similar or
reorientation activities that students participate in do different ways. Exploration of other differences in
not need to differ between international and domestic program location (urban versus rural, English-speak-
trips. However, this study found that students on ing or not, locations in which students identify with
international trips reflect more often and participate the racial majority or minority, etc.) may also provide
in more comprehensive orientation and reorientation insight into the ways in which the program location
programs, perhaps due to the more complex nature of may influence student learning. In-depth qualitative
international travel. research would help researchers come to an even
Ultimately, these findings run contrary to claims greater understanding of students’ experiences in
that students can have the same cross-cultural experi- these different contexts.
ences within the United States as they have abroad As institutions of higher education seek to promote
(Jacoby, 2009; Marmon, 2007). Students participat- the goals of civic engagement and global compe-
ing in international Alternative Breaks reported sig- tence, ISL can be a key tool in working toward both
nificantly different experiences than those on domes- of these goals simultaneously. While there is strong
tic Alternative Breaks. At the same time, it is impor- evidence for the powerful potential of domestic ser-
tant to note that while significant and meaningful, vice-learning, the results of this study provide pre-
these differences do not mean that domestic AB liminary evidence supporting the unique experiences
38
Domestic and International Service-Learning
that can be provided by ISL. As such, international Cooper, J.R. (2002). Social responsibility and types of ser-
programs should not be discounted as irrelevant or vice learning: A comparison of curricular service learn-
ing, co-curricular service learning, and traditional com-
unnecessary even if cross-cultural learning is possi-
munity service. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
ble within the United States.
Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, MI.
Note
Couper, G.E. (2001). The psychology of travel: A theoreti-
cal analysis of how study abroad and positive regression
This study was made possible by the generous support of affect personal growth. Unpublished doctoral disserta-
the NASPA Foundation, the ACPA Foundation, the tion, Northcentral University, Prescott Valley, AZ.
National Association of Campus Activities, the University Denson, J., Vogelgesang, L.J., & Saenz, V. (2005, April).
of Maryland College of Education Support Program for Can service learning and college climate of service lead
Advancing Research and Collaboration, and the University to increased political engagement after college? Paper
of Maryland College Student Personnel Program McEwen presented at the Annual Meeting of the American
Research Fund. Educational Research Association, Montreal, Canada.
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ELIZABETH NIEHAUS ([email protected]) is
Lewis, T.L. & Niesenbaum, R.A. (2005). Extending the an assistant professor of Higher Education and
stay: Using community-based research and service Student Affairs at the University of Nebraska,
learning to enhance short-term study abroad. Journal of Lincoln. She is also the principal investigator for the
Studies in International Education, 9, 251-264. National Survey of Alternative Breaks, a multi-insti-
doi:10.1177/1028315305277682 tutional study of students participating in Alternative
Break programs.
Lough, B.J. (2010). Predictors of intercultural competence
LÉNA KAVALIAUSKAS CRAIN (lkavalia@umd.
among international volunteers. Unpublished doctoral
edu) is a doctoral student in Student Affairs at the
dissertation, Washington University, St. Louis, MO.
University of Maryland, College Park, where she also
Marmon, E.L. (2007). Transformative learning in local, serves as graduate assistant in the Office of the Vice
cross-cultural situations: Surprising dilemmas, reflec- President for Student Affairs.
tions, and stories. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY.
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service learning: A comparative analysis of curriculum-
based and non-curriculum-based alternative spring
break programs. Unpublished doctoral dissertation,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI.
Niehaus, E. (2012a). Alternative break programs and the
factors that contribute to changes in students’ lives.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
Maryland, College Park.
40