ERIC EJ1045945: Native-American & Euro-American Cultures: A Comparative Look at the Intersection between Language & Worldview

2013·0.79 MB·English

by  ERIC

A Multicultural Interdisciplinary Inquiry
Native-American & Euro-American Cultures
A Comparative Look at the Intersection
between Language & Worldview
Doe A. S. Hain-Jamall
The Earth is in trouble. Decades of supports their activities. One must ask, 2000). A group’s worldview reflects their
mining, over-fishing, and the pumping of then, how so many people can allow, and culture’s values, and is the mechanism
toxic chemicals into the atmosphere have even endorse, such ecologically destructive used in turn to shape the values of suc-
taken an enormous toll on an otherwise practices. Perhaps it has to do with the cessive generations, largely with language
robust and healthy planetary ecosystem. growing gap between first -and third-world as the conduit (Gay, 2010; Goddard, 2003;
Those responsible have prioritized finan- countries, between humans and nature, Oyserman, 2011).
cial gain over sustainability, over life— and the ever-increasing penchant for con- Many values are conveyed uncon-
plant, animal, and human. Short-term sumerism. Perhaps it has to do with a lack sciously, in the form of colloquialisms,
profit realization has resulted in a blatant of basic respect for life. Perhaps there is catch phrases, and cultural metaphors
disregard for long-term environmental something wrong with the way we think. (Bowers, 2004; Martusewicz, Edmundson,
effects, and has been supported by govern- There are, in fact, differences in the & Lupinacci, 2011). This article begins with
ments and corporations, demonstrating a ways different cultures think. A mindset, a comparison of the worldviews of Native
widespread disrespect for the earth that or worldview, is a culture’s standard way Americans and those of Euro-Americans
of perceiving reality, of processing infor- as related to the natural world, followed
mation, of approaching problems, and of by a discussion of the many ways in which
Doe A. S. Hain-Jamall
interacting with others. Cultures with language perpetuates a culture’s mindset.
is a doctoral student
individualistic tendencies generally have Identifying four core Native-American
in currciulum and instruction
analytic, decontextualizing cognitive ori- values that are particularly relevant to
at the Benerd School of Education
entations, while those with collectivistic the ecological crisis, the discussion turns
at the University of the Pacific,
tendencies have holistic, contextualizing to Native holistic thinking and Euro-
Stockton, California.
cognitive orientations (Ji, Nisbett, & Peng,
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American systems thinking in order to this article, with no disrespect intended. the thing being counted breaks off (such
examine ways in which English might be Illustrating collectivism particularly well as a twig), and then you have 13. Or per-
deliberately used to encourage students to are the many cultures of Native Ameri- haps two join together, the way bubbles
adopt a more eco-friendly, holistic cognitive cans who will be referred to as Natives, do, and then you only have 11. There are
orientation toward human-environmental Indians, and American Indians, again in times, then, when 7 + 5 does not equal 12.
relationships. the hope that the terms do not offend. The Context is everything. To a child raised to
term “Native American” encompasses over reflect before answering questions, prob-
Worldviews 500 indigenous nations and over 175 dis- lems should be examined from more than
tinct languages (Native Languages of the one angle and other possibilities should
In the last fifty years or so, there has Americas, n.d; Nelson, 2008), in the same be seriously considered (Chavez, Ke, &
been a surge of research on the cognitive way that the term “Western European” Herrera, 2012; Macias, 1989; More, 1989;
aspects of entire cultures, which scholars represents a collection of distinct cultures Pewewardy, 2002).
have referred to as a group’s worldview, and languages. With collectivistic cultures’ emphasis
mindset, cognitive orientation, or paradigm In the pages that follow, references on collaboration over competition, Na-
(Bowers, 2002; Cajete, 2000; Ji, et al., 2000; to Native Americans apply to people who tive-American students also display a
Lee, Oyserman, & Bond, 2010; Nisbett, have been raised within their cultures, with preference for group work. Group projects
Peng, Choi, & Norenzayan, 2002; Oyser- exposure to their tribal languages, with tend to elicit more participation than in-
man, 2011). For the purposes of this work,
the terms will be used interchangeably,
with the understanding that a worldview . . . collectivist societies tend to contextualize information,
is a culture’s standard way of perceiving
seeking connections and patterns
reality, processing information, approach-
between subjects and topics,
ing problems, and interacting with others.
It reflects a culture’s values, and is the and to prioritize the context in which events occur . . .
mechanism used in turn to shape the values
of successive generations.
Many, if not all, of the world’s cultures the acknowledgement that many tribal dividual work and team sports can spark
fall into one of two camps: collectivistic or languages have been lost and others are on fierce competition (Swisher & Deyhle,
individualistic cultures (Ji, et al., 2000; the brink of extinction. Observations about 1989). Collaboration, which also enables
Nisbett, et al., 2002; Oyserman, 2011). Col- entire cultures are also meant to be repre- students to avoid the limelight, makes
lectivistic societies are so named because sentative, recognizing that within a society group activities significantly more ap-
they place greater value on the welfare of there is much variation and readers are pealing to Native students (Brayboy, 2006;
the group than on the individual. Fitting cautioned against stereotyping individuals Cajete, 1999; Pewewardy, 2002; Pewewardy
in, collaboration, and the fulfillment of and or groups. The research cited here has & Hammer, 2003). While there are many
expected roles are emphasized, and indi- focused on patterns of behavior and refers White students who also prefer group
viduals come to view themselves as part of to general trends in a population. work, Euro-American schools, reflecting
a larger construct, interdependent, rather In American classrooms, where the the values of White individualism, have
than independent (Cajete, 1999; Nisbett, vast majority of teachers are White (Cast- traditionally emphasized independent
et al., 2001). Individualistic societies, such agno & Brayboy, 2009; Renzulli, Parrott, work and competition (Pewewardy, 2002).
as those in Western Europe and in Eng- & Beattie, 2011), there are infinite pos- Cognitively, Native Americans also
lish-speaking nations around the world, sibilities for misinterpretation and mis- demonstrate the collectivistic tendency
prioritize the individual over the group, understandings with Native-American to think holistically. That is, they look
emphasizing independence, competition, students (Castagno & Brayboy, 2009; Gay, for patterns and for connections between
and individual achievement. 2010; Pewewardy, 2002). The Native pref- events and between pieces of knowledge
Cognitively, individualistic cultures erence for fitting in and working together or information (Brayboy, 2006; Ji, et al.,
have an affinity for logical analysis and (Cajete, 2000; Pewewardy, 2002; Swisher 2000; Macias, 1989; More, 1989; Nisbett,
for decontextualizing information, as well & Deyhle, 1989) is particularly relevant et al., 2001; Oyserman, 2011; Pewewardy,
as for categorizing and subcategorizing because Indian students sometimes 2002). Where the Euro-American mind will
subjects and topics (Bednar, 2003; Cajete, confound their Euro-American teachers decontextualize information for analysis,
2000; Martusewicz, et al., 2011; Nisbett, when they hesitate to answer questions in the Native mind contextualizes for synthe-
et al., 2001; Orr, 2004; Oyserman, 2011). class. Drawing attention to themselves in sis, with the view that nothing exists in a
In contrast, collectivistic societies tend to this way would be considered boastful by vacuum, and that there is more to every
contextualize information, seeking con- their peers (More, 1989; Pewewardy, 2002; situation than the event itself.
nections and patterns between subjects Swisher & Dehyle, 1989). Work by Morris and Peng (1994)
and topics, and to prioritize the context in In this example, however, there is provides an example of this, and also the
which events occur (Ji, et al., 2000; Mar- another issue—in the holistic mindset dichotomy of agency; individualistic Euro-
tusewicz, et al., 2011; Macias, 1989; More, there is often more than one correct an- Americans view agency as residing within
1989; Nisbett, et al., 2001; Oyserman, 2011; swer, even to seemingly obvious questions the individual, whereas collectivistic
Pewewardy, 2002). (Cajete, 2000; Kidwell, Noley, & Tinker, Indians look to the situation and greater
Individualistic societies are exempli- 2001; Wenzel, 2010). As a lighthearted, context first. Morris and Peng explain that
fied by the culture of Euro-Americans, but illustrative example, 7 + 5 = 12 most in discussing events such as mass murders,
who will also be referred to as White in of the time, but there are situations where people in individualistic cultures look to
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the state of mind of the perpetrator. Those entific approach to objects and information Language as a Conduit
in collectivistic societies first consider the that breaks things down into their assorted of Cultural Values and Beliefs
context, seeking circumstances or events parts for decontextualized study (Bednar,
that might have caused the perpetrator to 2003; Orr, 2004; Slattery, 2013). Such work Scholars across disciplines agree that
behave in such a way (Morris & Peng, as involves a great deal of categorization (and language is an important vehicle through
cited in Nisbett, et al., 2001). sub-categorization), and it is not without which cultural values are passed on to suc-
The final dichotomy to be mentioned value. Libraries and office filing systems ceeding generations (Bowers, 2002; Bruner,
here is the Euro-American preference for function well only because of this sort of 1996; Cajete, 2000; Gay, 2010; Goddard, 2003;
logical analysis in education as opposed to detailed categorization. Martusewicz, et al., 2011). Martusewicz
the Native-American value of experiential Decontextualized study may have and her colleagues (2011), explain, “. . . the
learning (Deloria, 2003; Macias, 1989; been taken to an extreme in American language system that any culture uses is
Margolin, 2005; Swisher & Dayle, 1989; educational settings, however, where sub- what any member is born into and socialized
Tafoya, 1989), expressed in the saying, jects are taught as independent disciplines, through” (p. 59).
“When you teach someone something, you with little or no effort to connect learning The basic syntax of a language has
have robbed him of the opportunity to learn or put it into a larger context (Ableman, been found to affect one’s cognitive ori-
it” (Margolin, 2005, p. 70). Both groups are 2005; Bednar, 2003; Cajete, 2000; Capra, entation. Native-American languages are
capable of logical thought, of course, and 2005; Castagno & Brayboy, 2009; Orr, described as “verb-based” (Cajete, 2000,
people in both cultures can, and do, learn 2004; Slattery, 2013). Euro-Americans, p. 27), and it is thought that this reflects
from personal experience. The difference is both scholars and hobbyists, have also a cultural focus on action; on connections
that “when logical structure conflicts with employed their categorization skills as between a beginning and an end (Cajete,
everyday belief, [analytic] Euro-American they studied the natural world, examin- 2000; Gopnik & Choi, 1990). Young Eng-
students are more willing to set aside ing parts of it in isolation, in disciplines lish-speaking children learn nouns before
empirical belief in favor of logic” (Nisbett, such as botany, entomology, and geology. verbs and develop labeling and categoriza-
et al., 2001, p. 301). Native Americans People with this cognitive orientation have tion skills earlier (Gopnik & Choi, 1990;
are more likely to accept what they have been labeled “field independent” because Tohidian & Tabatabaie, 2010) than do
learned through personal experience than they view an object or event apart from children in collectivistic cultures. “Thus, it
what “makes sense” logically. its context, or “field,” and can, in fact, find appears that the prevalence of nouns and
An interesting, but important, side ef- it difficult to consider the context (Ji, et verbs in speech given to children as well as
fect of experiential learning is the recogni- al., 2000; Nisbett, et al., 2001; Oyserman, the way they are used . . . may influence the
tion that no two people will have the same 2011; Pewewardy, 2002). Native Americans timing of certain cognitive achievements”
experience; therefore knowledge acquired have a “field dependent” or “field sensi- (Tohidian & Tabatabaie, 2010, p. 60).
by two children in the same situation will tive” (More, 1989) cognitive orientation In addition to grammatical influ-
be different. This is in direct contrast with (More, 1989; Pewewardy, 2002; Swisher ences, the effects of which go unnoticed,
the traditional Euro-American view that & Deyhle, 1989), meaning that they focus languages are peppered with sayings and
knowledge is information, external to the on the context or environment (the field) proverbs whose purpose is to explicitly
individual, and that a group of children can in which an object or event is found (Ji, et transmit values such as cleanliness being
and should all acquire the same knowledge al, 2000; Nisbett, et al, 2001; Oyserman, next to Godliness, and the fact that you can
in the same way (Eisner, as cited in Slat- 2011), and may find it difficult to consider catch more flies with honey than you can
tery, 2013). In the holistic paradigm, that information out of context (Pewewardy, with vinegar. Less obvious are the nuances
which each child learns will be “true” to 2002). The term “field sensitive” is felt to attached to commonly-used individual
him, and seemingly contradictory facts be more appropriate, partly because the words. These nuances are so embedded in
may both be true at the same time. For term “dependence” suggests weakness, the culture that the unspoken aspect is un-
example, two children in a pen of puppies rather than orientation. The term “field derstood by the members of a community
may have two very different experiences, independence” suggests a clear division without conscious thought. Martusewicz,
and the one who says that puppies are when in fact the two cognitive styles repre- et al. (2011) refer to them as cultural
sweet and cuddly is as correct as the child sent the ends of a continuum (Pewewardy, metaphors. The phrases “light” and “dark,”
who says puppies jump and scratch. What 2002). In keeping with the greater body of for example, imply good and evil. There
is important to note is that this mindset research, however, the terms “dependent” are the “dark arts,” and the “dark” conti-
allows for ambiguity and seemingly contra- and “independent” will be used here. nent of Africa, with sinister connotations,
dictory “truths,” thereby enabling holistic As mentioned earlier, a worldview is a standing in stark contrast to phrases such
thinkers to consider other perspectives as culture’s standard way of perceiving reality as “lighting the way” and “beacon of hope”
equally valid (Cajete, 2000; Kidwell, et al., (field dependence/independence, absolute with positive, almost spiritual connota-
2001; Nelson, 2008; Wenzel, 2010). truth/different perspectives, logical analy- tions. Similarly, the word “independent,”
Euro-Americans, in contrast, look sis/experiential learning), processing infor- as mentioned earlier, evokes a particularly
for “right” answers, the “right” way to do mation (analysis/synthesis), approaching strong response in the United States where
things, and for absolute truths (Cajete, problems (categorization/contextualization, personal freedom is so highly prized as a
2000; Deloria, 2003; Kidwell, et al., 2001). agency), and interacting with others (com- cultural norm.
In traditional Euro-American educational petition/collaboration, standing out/fitting Many metaphors are benign, but some
settings, answers are right or wrong, and in). Unless taken to an extreme, neither is perpetuate attitudes that can lead to harm-
only the more open-minded instructors will better than the other, but people in both ful practices, such as “resources,” referring
consider other possibilities. This emphasis groups are largely unaware that there are to plants and animals as commodities, and
on fact and absolute truth is behind the sci- other “ways of knowing” (Brayboy, 2006). “progress,” which suggests that outdated
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models or methods be abandoned for the In Native-American cultures, howev- which is why they are described with a form
new—because they are new, and therefore er, knowledge is expected to be subjective of animism, and they are respected equally
better. Some familiar phrases, dripping because any learning of value is acquired with plants, humans, and animals (Cajete,
with nuance, are “’the American dream,” through experience (Deloria, 2003; Ma- 2000; Deloria, 2003; Kidwell, et al., 2001).
“free market,” “individual freedom,” and cias, 1989; Margolin, 2005; More, 1989; With this respect for other life forms,
“economic growth’” (Bednar, 2003, p. 4). Swisher & Dayle, 1989; Tafoya, 1989), Native Americans have a long history
In the U.S., these phrases have been used which is subjective by definition. Spiri- of working with the land (Cajete, 2000;
to support the dominance of business, the tuality is also not separate from other Kidwell, et al., 2001; Lightfoot & Par-
feverish rise of industry as progress, and aspects of life. It is, in fact, an integral rish, 2009; Mohawk, 2008; Rawls, 1984).
the competitive spirit of individualism to part of the Native-American lifestyle, not They do not manage it, for that would
the detriment of the natural world (Bednar, a religion. One is in constant contact with imply superiority and disrespect; they
2003; Bowers, 2002; Martusewicz, et al., the spirit world through interaction with ask permission through ceremonies (some
2011; Orr, 2004). people and the natural world (Adamson, elaborate, others very simple) to take
Cultural metaphors are powerful 2008; Cajete, 2000; Deloria, 2003; Kidwell, what they need, and they give something
back in return. Reciprocity is central to
the Native-American paradigm (Cajete,
In an effort to bring these “new” discourses 2000; Deloria, 2003; Kidwell, et al., 2001),
into everyday Euro-American conversation, and upon receiving a gift, it would be un-
conscionably rude not to give something
one must consider how language might be used
in return, even just a token.
in the classroom to convey ideas that are
California Indians, among others,
so effortlessly transmitted in Native languages. are known to have deliberately pruned,
cleared debris, transplanted, and used fire
to promote plant growth (Anderson, 2005;
because the meanings attached to them et al., 2001; Lyons, 2008; More, 1989; Lightfoot & Parrish, 2009; Mohawk, 2008).
generally go unnoticed, and are thus Pewewardy, 2002). Gregory Cajete refers to their work as a
accepted as “just the way the world is” This interplay between experiential kind of “environmental bonsai,” because
(Martusewicz, et al., 2011, p. 63). Equally learning, connection to the spirit world it “actually formed the flora and fauna of
as powerful, however, are a culture’s through interaction with others, and a the landscape” (Cajete, 2000, p. 111). One
silences (Bowers, 2002; Swartz, 2009). A field-dependent cognitive orientation could argue that the work was entirely
metaphor can be dissected, but a silence highlights the interconnected, subjective to their benefit, as was their habit of not
cannot because as silence, there is nothing mindset of Native-American cultures. It over-harvesting (Armstrong, 2005; Ca-
to examine. stands in contrast to the Euro-American jete, 2000; Martusewicz, et al., 2011), but
tendency to separate the spiritual and American Indian writers relate that the
This means that the implicit, taken-for-
emotional from learning, to place more reasons their elders gave them for the care
granted, silent, invisible [narratives] re-
value on objective knowledge, and to de- of the landscape had to do with balance
ceive no recognition. They operate ‘in the
background,’ so to speak. Jerome Bruner contextualize information (Bednar, 2003; and respect for other forms of life rather
refers to these narratives as ‘canonical,’ Bowers, 2002; Cajete, 2000; More, 1989; than simply for the purpose of increased
(Swartz, 2009, p. 794) Orr, 2004; Oyserman, 2011; Pewewardy, productivity (Armstrong, 2005; Kidwell, et
2002; Slattery, 2013). The different mind- al., 2001; Martinez, 2008; Martusewicz, et
As an example of canonical silence in
sets are perpetuated through the use of al., 2011).
the United States, consider the historic
colloquialisms, syntax, metaphors, and This emphasis on harmony and bal-
omission of Native Americans in children’s
silences. Some of this language use is delib- ance, maintained through reciprocity, is
textbooks (Pewewardy, 2002). There has
erate, some unconscious, but the messages found in tribes across the country (and
been some improvement toward these in-
are strong, and the effects far-reaching. among indigenous groups around the
clusions since the end of the last century
world), and is a theme that runs through
(Gay, 2010), but generations of children
Systems Thinking much of the published work on Native
learned about their country’s history
culture. It is also an example of two Native-
through the eyes of White men (Gay, 2010; Unlike White Americans, Native American taken-for-granted “truths.” The
Pewewardy, 2001). Americans do not consider themselves as first is that all life is interconnected and in-
Another silence in mainstream White separate from, much less superior to the terdependent (Cajete, 2000; Kidwell, et al.,
culture is that of spirituality (Cajete, 2000; natural world (Armstrong, 2005; Cajete, 2001; Mohawk, 2008; Slattery, 2013). The
Orr, 2004). Spiritual and religious knowl- 2000; Deloria, 2003; Kidwell, et al., 2001). second is that relationships both within
edge are thought of more as “belief” than “Each form of life has its own purposes” and beyond the tribe are important, and
“knowledge” and to a society that values (Cajete, 2000, p. 87), and there is no as- that some effort is required (Armstrong,
logical analysis, only objective knowledge sumption that the human is in some way 2005; Armstrong, 2008; Martinez, 2008;
is considered reliable (Martusewicz, et al., superior to the “others” (Cheyfitz, 2009; Settee, 2008) in order to maintain balance
2011). Because subjective knowledge, such Mohawk, 2008). Humans are simply “plain within them. Describing these concepts,
as spirituality, is not acknowledged, let members and citizens of the biotic commu- Kidwell and her colleagues (2001) write:
alone discussed except among close friends, nity” (Leopold, as cited in Orr, 2004, p. ix).
it is dismissed as unimportant when it does Inanimate objects such as the stars, stones, The value of reciprocity, which is a hall-
arise (Cajete, 2000; Orr, 2004). and the land embody the Creator’s spirit, mark of Indian ceremonies, goes to the
heart of issues of sustainability, which
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is maintaining a balance and temper- count and considers the effects of action Since explaining things in terms of their
ing the effects of basic human survival taken against it—except, perhaps, when contexts means explaining them in terms
techniques. There is no ceremony among it comes to gnats. of their environments, all systems think-
any people for clear-cutting an entire The individualistic mindset of Euro- ing is environmental thinking. (Capra, in
forest. (p. 44) Stone, et al., 2005, p. 20)
Americans, on the other hand, has a
The holistic Native-American world- poor track record when it comes to its These notions—of balance and reci-
view embodies the notion of sustainability relationship with the natural world. The procity, of overlapping and connected
in general, with a few key values that are four key values represented by the Na- systems, of the need to examine the con-
particularly ecofriendly. The first value is tive-American paradigm—respect for other text of an object or event—demonstrate
respect for other life forms (Armstrong, life forms, balance, reciprocity, and holistic an enormous paradigmatic shift. In an
2005; Kidwell, et al., 2001; Martinez, thinking—are noticeably lacking in Euro- effort to bring these “new” discourses into
2008; Martusewicz, et al., 2011; Settee, American cultures. everyday Euro-American conversation,
2008), beginning with the fundamental one must consider how language might be
If today is a typical day on planet earth,
acknowledgement that they have a right humans will add fifteen million tons of used in the classroom to convey ideas that
to exist (Anishinaabeb Elder, as cited in carbon to the atmosphere, destroy 115 are so effortlessly transmitted in Native
Martusewicz, 2011). The second value is square miles of tropical rainforest, create languages.
balance (Armstrong, 2005; Kidwell, et al., seventy-two square miles of desert, elimi-
2001; Martinez, 2008; Martusewicz, et al., nate between forty to one hundred species, Changing Language Use
erode seventy-one million tons of topsoil,
2011; Pewewardy, 2002; Settee, 2008), as in the Classroom
add twenty-seven hundred tons of CFC’s
an unbalanced system of any kind will
to the stratosphere, and increase the
not prosper. The third ecofriendly value, According to Vygotsky’s theory, lan-
population by 263,000. Yesterday, today,
reciprocity, reflects Native respect for other and tomorrow. (Orr, 1992, p. 3) guage influences “the very nature and
life forms and helps to maintain balance essence of the thinking process” (Bodrova
(Cajete, 2000; Deloria, 2003; Kidwell, The daily loss of plant and animal spe- & Leong, 2007, p. 30). This supports the
et al., 2001) in family systems, social cies (World Wildlife Federation, n.d.), claims made by Bowers (2002) and Mar-
systems, and biotic systems. The fourth overfishing, strip mining, and unethical tusewicz, et al., (2011) that language car-
value is holistic thinking. It is more than business practices conducted overseas to ries cultural metaphors that influence the
a cognitive orientation; it is an instinct to avoid American safety laws all illustrate way people think. Vygotsky’s theory also
put information into a larger context, to individualistic thinking gone amok (Mar- aligns with Morris and Peng’s findings
consider the bigger picture, with its many tusewicz, et al., 2011). The question then that grammatical patterns play a role in
intricate connections. Information that has arises as to how to encourage staunchly cognition. It stands to reason, therefore,
no context is of little value; with no con- individualistic Euro-Americans to think that a deliberate shift in the use of syntax,
text, it has no use (Deloria, 2003; Macias, in a more holistic manner, to value other colloquialisms, and metaphor in the class-
1989; Margolin, 2005; More, 1989; Swisher forms of life, and to seek a more reasonable room could nudge students’ cognition in a
& Deyhle, 1989; Tafoya, 1989). A holistic and sustainable balance of the ecological more holistic direction.
thinker recognizes that there are infinite systems of which we are a part. Consider a deliberate change in the
ways in which humans and other life forms In truth, the task may not be as diffi- use of syntax, for example. A shift in the
are interconnected. She prioritizes con- cult as one might imagine. As postmodern- use of a language’s syntax does not require
nections and patterns over categorization ism crept into the 20th century, it brought that its grammatical structure be altered.
and is able to approach situations from along early ideas of the interconnected na- In the same way that children are taught to
multiple perspectives, appreciating the ture of the world (Slattery, 2013). Witness write in the first or third person, they can be
value of others’ “truths,” even when they systems thinking. An outgrowth of system taught to write in a manner that emphasiz-
appear to contradict her own (Cajete, 2000; dynamics, systems thinking “focuses on es the use of verbs, with explicit instruction
Ji, et al., 2000; More, 1989; Nisbett, et al., how the thing being studied interacts with regarding the way verbs highlight connec-
2001; Oyserman, 2011; Pewewardy, 2002; the other constituents of the system…of tions and cause-and-effect situations, both
Swisher & Deyhle, 1989). which it is a part” (Aronson, 1996, p. 1). It of which are important aspects of systems
These four key values—respect for does, however, involve a paradigm shift for thinking (Aronson, 1996). This brings sys-
other life forms, balance, reciprocity, and Euro-Americans accustomed to the struc- tems thinking out of narrative silence and
holistic thinking—overlap, the way various ture of logic and analysis. They must learn into common conversation, thereby elevat-
life systems overlap—ecosystems, social to change the direction of their focus ing it to a topic of value (Martusewicz, et al.,
systems, respiratory systems, political sys- . . . [f]rom objects to relationships. An 2011; Swartz, 2009). An emphasis on nouns,
tems. This is not to imply that all American ecosystem is not just a collection of spe- as mentioned earlier, would highlight labels
Indians spend their time talking to trees cies, but is a community. Communities, and distinctions, creating a tendency to cat-
and planting acorns. Indeed, the author whether ecosystems or human systems, egorize and isolate information (Gopnik &
recently had lunch with a Wintu friend at are characterized by sets, or networks of Choi, 1990; Tohidian & Tabatabaie, 2010).
a picnic table on mown grass—or rather relationships. In the systems view, the Metaphor change has already begun,
the author had lunch, while her friend in “objects” of study are networks of relation- starting with the wave of political correct-
ships, embedded in larger networks…The
designer boots slapped at gnats, exclaim- ness that began in the 1970s. The word
shift of focus from the parts to the whole
ing, “I hate the wilderness!” (M. Acuna, implies a shift from analytical thinking to “cripple,” for example, has been replaced
personal communication, July, 2012) The contextual thinking. The properties of the with “physically disabled.” Adding the
point is that the Native-American holistic parts are not intrinsic, but can be under- term “physically” to “disabled” subtly
mindset takes the natural world into ac- stood only within the context of the whole. reminds people that the mental faculties
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Sustainability Education
of the person in question are not part of ues and beliefs are conveyed through a society. In M. Nelson (Ed.), Original instruc-
the disability—an assumption made with society’s language. This suggests that if tions: Indigenous teachings for a sustainable
surprising regularity (Karp, 1999). language were to be used in a deliberate future (pp. 66-74). Rochester, VT: Bear &
Company.
Even business metaphors are chang- way, it could influence a student’s cognitive
Aronson, D. (1996). Overview of systems think-
ing, in spite of the Euro-American devotion orientation. This could be accomplished
ing. Retrieved from http://www.pegasuscom.
to capitalism (Orr, 2004). Terms such as through clearly-stated exchanges, and
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“ethical business practices” and “sustain- pedagogies that express the inherent Barlow, Z., & Stone, M. (2005). Introduction.
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Ecologism and the shaping of an alternative
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Unpublished manuscript. Department of En-
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