ERIC EJ1035680: Refocusing Developmental Education

2012·1.1 MB·English

by  ERIC

Refocusing Developmental Education

By Thomas Brothen and Cathrine A. Wambach
ABSTRACT: Dissatisfaction with student success has been further division within the field. In addi-
has caused a crisis in developmental education. tion, remedial courses have not only stimulated
Critics from both inside and outside the field the most research but have drawn the most criti-
question whether remedial courses really prepare cism from policymakers (Boylan, 1999; Saxon &
students for future college work or even if they are Boylan, 2001). A “remediation only” approach also
properly part of the college mission. In this article, contrasts with the broader view of developmental
we review research and present information that education as academic support for all students
suggests developmental educators should redefine (Higbee, 1996; Lundell & Collins, 1999) delivered
core principles and key concepts to reinvigorate by all faculty (Tinto, 1993). If the unification of
theory and practice in the field. professionals in the field is dependent upon find-
ing the common voice and value set underlying
Are educational institutions the work they do with students, it is imperative
Each fall, thousands of new students unable to to move forward with discussion and research to
responding correctly to
read at the college level, unable to write standard better define our foundations.
academic English, unable to compute algebra
this challenge [of serving Remediation: Historic Contexts
problems, and unaware of the amount of time
and Current Issues
underprepared students]? and effort required to master these skills arrive
on college campuses (McCabe, 2000; National The principle that no student should be denied
Center for Education Statistics [NCES], 1996; the chance to attend some form of postsecondary
THE INSTITUTE, 1998). Although many students education may be supported by the American ideal
are motivated to overcome the barriers that stand of equal educational opportunity for all, but the
between them and their educational goals, many public has also voiced the belief that 4-year colleges
more fail to engage this sometimes daunting task. should be selective (Caravale & Rose, 2003). The
The resulting question – Are educational institu- large numbers of students applying to colleges in
tions responding correctly to this challenge? – is the 1960s and 1970s together with the proliferation
echoed on many fronts. of open-admission colleges during the same time
Developmental education can be and has been frame made it possible for increasing numbers of
defined in many different ways. During cycles of 4-year colleges to be selective in their admission
the profession, various aspects have come under processes (Grubb, 1999). But, for many reasons,
scrutiny and attack from government officials, 4-year schools have continued to admit under-
school boards, parents, and even students them- prepared students, and institutions have often
selves (Arendale, 2003). The resulting uncertainty adopted stand-alone courses designed to remedy
contributes to the discouragement that can arise skill deficits to serve such students. For example,
from teaching courses to students who are not Bader and Hardin (2002) described how a state
ready for college. The articulation of a common system of higher education created developmental
set of core values may counter this uncertainty and studies programs centered on remedial courses for,
help developmental educators think about ways to among others, underprepared minority students
create positive momentum in the field. brought into 4-year colleges and universities via
thomas Brothen The traditional core of developmental educa- “alternative admissions standards” (p. 36).
professor tion has been remediation. Although educators Recently, many public 4-year colleges have
[email protected] and institutions at all levels have often agreed that been pressured to discontinue traditional course-
the task of student development is shared across based remediation (THE INSTITUTE, 1998),
cathrine a. Wambach campus (Cross, 1971; Spann & McCrimmon, 1998), and many state legislatures or higher education
associate professor skill development courses remain the tool most boards are moving to restrict it (Arendale, 2003).
commonly used by developmental educators. Some This movement to reduce remedial courses in col-
university of minnesota researchers argue in favor of the effectiveness of leges continues despite the fact that nearly every
128 pleasant street, se remedial coursework (e.g., McCabe, 2000), and community college, 4-year college, and university
minneapolis, mn 55455-0434 others argue against it (e.g., Levin, 1999). The result in the United States admits students who are not
34 Journal of DeVelopmental eDucatIon
ready for the level of academic work expected of and benefited from developmental writing classes, those students who earned more than 10 credits in
them (NCES, 1996). This has led 78% of all higher even if mandatory placement did not require them the community college curriculum and more than
education institutions, including 100% of commu- to do so. This suggests that colleges should continue 10 credits at their transfer institution, highlight-
nity colleges, to offer remedial coursework; these giving placement tests and offering precollege-level ing the importance of early academic progress in
courses use only 1% of the U.S. higher education skill development courses. Students are likely to determining later academic success.
budget (NCES, 1996). Saxon and Boylan (2001) benefit from these courses in ways that are not McCabe (2000) responded to concerns about
have argued that remedial courses pay for them- easily captured in studies of persistence and course low transfer rates by arguing that students enrolled
selves whereas McCabe (2000) has asserted that performance, especially if they enter them volun- in remedial courses improve their lives in many
remediation is a good investment for society and tarily (Bers, 1987; Maxwell, 1998). ways besides improving their chances for academic
has concluded that developmental educators need success. He asserted that continued refinement
Success Beyond Remedial
to continue their efforts to improve it. of the mandatory testing/placement system will
Coursework
lead to improved outcomes in students’ academic
Is Remediation Effective?
One of the largest debates surrounding the skills and life goals and that the economic benefits of
If remedial courses are to remain an important remediation approach to developmental educa- helping even a small percentage of these students
part of developmental education, researchers tion is whether it prepares students not just for outweighs the costs. He also argued that allowing
need to determine if they truly prepare students short-term course success but if it also contributes underprepared, unremediated students to enroll in
for future college work and how the courses fit to degree completion. Evidence from the Exxon college-level courses will cause teachers to reduce
into the full range of services for developmental sponsored National Study of Developmental their expectations for student performance, water-
students. Evaluating students on traditional out- Education (Boylan & Saxon, 1999) suggests that ing down the curriculum for everyone.
come measures such as retention, grades in the next taking fewer remedial courses is associated with
The Impact of Underprepared
course, and grades in the “regular” curriculum may better retention and higher graduation rates. The
Students on Curriculum Quality
be the best way to answer this question. Little Hoover Commission’s (LHC, 2000) exami-
Critics of mandatory remediation such as Some research evidence has supported the conten-
Richardson, Fisk, and Okun (1983) have long Critics of mandatory tion that the presence of underprepared students
argued that it does not advance students toward has an impact on faculty teaching style that is not
degrees. Levin (1999) summarized a broad array remediation . . . have long conducive to student development. Richardson et al.
of research supporting the Richardson et al. argu- (1983) found that teachers in a large community col-
argued that it does not
ment that students who are required to take many lege system felt strong pressure to reduce the literary
remedial courses get discouraged and drop out, advance students toward requirements for their mainstream courses, espe-
and those who complete remedial programs “suc- cially when underprepared students were allowed to
degrees.
ceed” because of their prior program motivation or simply enroll. Teachers who could effectively reduce
abilities. In his review, Levin also criticized the lack the content of a subject to a few “bytes” of infor-
of rigorous follow-up studies on the effectiveness nation of a state community college system also mation were popular with students and received
of remedial programs, saying this absence leads suggests that remedial course placement is associ- teaching awards, insuring their future employ-
to a real ignorance of just what, if anything, they ated with low probabilities for degree completion. ment. Based on observations of 257 classrooms in
accomplish. More specifically, the LHC (2000) statistics 32 community colleges from 11 states, Grubb (1999)
compiled from all public community colleges in reported that many liberal arts instructors, faced
The Argument for Remediation
California for the 1998-99 academic year showed with students who could not do the assigned subject
Despite opposition, arguments to continue that 10.4% of all community college enrollments matter work, converted their academic courses into
remedial education have continued to exist. For were in basic skills courses. Eighty percent of stu- skills courses even though they had no clear concep-
example, a high quality study by Schoenecker, dents completed these courses successfully, but tion of how to do skills development. He concluded
Bollman, and Evens (1998) found that commu- only 24% of completers went on to take even one that, “despite what policy makers think they are
nity college students who were recommended higher-level course. The commission report also doing [when they mandate elimination of remedial
for remedial, nondegree courses but did not take suggested other student success problems. Even courses], remediation will persist in other guises:
them (noncompleters) had lower average GPAs and though California community college students Instructors will continue to modify their courses
lower subsequent registration (persistence) rates completing 2 years with a 2.0 GPA were admissible accordingly” (p.198-199).
than students who completed remediation. On the to California State Universities and those with a 2.4
Alternatives to Remediation
other hand, when Schoenecker et al. examined the were admissible to the highly selective University of
development of writing skills more closely, they California campuses, only 3% of California public The widespread belief that changes in developmental
found the subsequent pass rate in the college-level community college students actually transferred education might lead to greater student success has
composition course to be 84% for those who com- to these public institutions. stimulated discussion about a new future. Arendale
pleted a remedial writing course compared to a Other studies have suggested a higher overall (2000) recently asserted that the biggest trend in
rate of 79% for noncompleters, reflecting only a transfer rate. Berkner, He, and Cataldi’s (2002) developmental education will be “the concurrent
small, nonstatistically significant advantage for report of a 6-year longitudinal study of post- development of learning strategies while students
completers. secondary students across the U.S. suggested a are in graduation-credit content courses” (p. 8).
Nevertheless, providing students with oppor- 25% transfer rate of community college students Boylan (1999) suggested expanding the scope of
tunities to strengthen their writing, reading, math, to 4-year institutions. However, those students developmental education to utilize research-based
and study skills has exhibited positive benefits. The identified as developmental students were much alternatives to remedial courses such as freshman
Schoenecker et al. (1998) study also showed that less likely to transfer. Adelman (1999) reported a seminars, Supplemental Instruction, learning com-
significant numbers of students voluntarily took 19.3% rate of attaining baccalaureate degrees for munities, collaborative learning, paired courses,
Volume 36, Issue 2 • WInter 2012 35
and critical thinking instruction as part of the skills courses with Supplemental Instruction (SI; school but could not perform at college level on
regular college curriculum. Grubb (1999) argued Arendale, 2002), writing across the curriculum a math placement test, would not have to take a
that to be successful with underprepared students, (Miller, Brothen, Hatch, & Moen, 1988), or a vari- math course at the University of Minnesota but,
developmental education should be “integrated ety of other activities and arrangements (Boylan, rather, could satisfy the mathematical thinking
with academic and occupational subjects” (p. 205). 1999). SI is promising because it can be applied to distribution requirement by taking logic (Hatfield,
He also pointed out that “developmental education students’ education at any point and, because it 2001). Such a student could be required to take
is one of the most difficult teaching challenges and is associated with high-risk courses rather than a remedial math course if he or she begins at a
needs to be rescued from its second class status” high-risk students, it is less stigmatized. Academic community college utilizing mandatory testing/
(p. 174). Integrating developmental education with assistance throughout students’ academic careers placement and might argue that the class is a waste
the college-level curriculum may help accomplish may be the most powerful remedial technique, of time and money. If the hypothetical student is
both goals. Integrated courses can serve students’ but such interventions are typically voluntary. interested in business, then remedial mathematics
skill development needs as well as their need to Underprepared students may not be as likely to might be necessary, especially if the placement
become knowledgeable in content areas (Brothen & use them as their better-prepared peers. test results are consistent with other information
Wambach, 2000). And training college instructors There is undeniable wisdom in McCabe’s about the student’s math proficiency. Thus, institu-
to help students develop skills within their courses (2000) description of an increasingly diverse tions need to find ways to strike a balance between
would also make developmental education more population in need of basic tools to participate in requiring remediation that could delay students’
central to the curriculum. Additional research and the workforce of the 21st century. Reading teachers progress and allowing them to make choices that
exami nation of such integrated initiatives should and other developmental educators can contribute may not be helpful to their academic success (c.f.,
help uncover primary shared goals and values much to meeting these needs, and traditional read- Miller & Gerlach, 1997). At the same time, teach-
in the field. ing, writing, and study skills courses can be very ers need encouragement and support to develop
One crucial question is whether underpre- useful for many students (c.f., Hadwin & Winne, and maintain high standards and should not be
pared students can enter the college-level curricu- 1996). Locating these courses in postsecondary penalized when students who refuse to follow
lum without causing the diminution of quality recommendations about skill development are
that Richardson et al. (1983) and Grubb (1999) “Developmental education not successful.
have observed. Another question is whether the 3. Develop a Range of Placement
proposed alternatives are powerful enough to is one of the most difficult
Testing Procedures
remediate the academic skills of individuals with
teaching challenges and
longstanding, serious skill deficits. Although these Efforts to create valid and reliable placement test-
individuals might never be candidates for degrees, needs to be rescued from its ing procedures should continue. As these efforts
strengthening their basic skills at least improves proceed, it must be recognized that the issue of
second class status.”
their likelihood of successful employment and mandatory testing and placement may not be as
responsible citizenship. Even though educators clear-cut as those who support or oppose it might
and politicians at all levels have sometimes staked believe. Although McCabe (2000) has asserted it
out extreme positions on this issue (Arendale, institutions instead of relegating them to adult is absolutely crucial, it has been subject to legal
2003; THE INSTITUTE, 1998), we believe that education programs may be particularly impor- challenge in California because of its differential
a new consensus is possible about what to do for tant in connecting students to the educational impact on minority students (Grubb, 1999). A
underprepared students. programs necessary for workforce development. promising approach has been reported by Schiel
For example, Berkner et al. (2002) showed that, and Harmston (2002), who pointed out that giving
Seven Key Concepts for Highly
of entering community college students with no placement tests to those students scoring below a
Effective Educators
aspirations for obtaining degrees, 10.7% received cutoff point on the ACT is more valid than basing
To deal with the diversity of opinion about the associates’ degrees and 5.8% baccalaureate degrees remedial placement on one test score. Matzen and
future of developmental education coming both within 6 years of first enrollment. Taking any col- Hoyt (2004) also have discussed alternatives to
from outside and inside the field, a reexamina- lege course may open students’ eyes to possibilities single tests and give guidance on choosing testing
tion and renewal of key concepts is necessary. It they had not previously considered. procedures. We have argued against single instru-
is important for practitioners to conceive of devel- 2. Vary Course Placement Requirements ment mandatory testing and placement (Wambach
opmental education as dynamic rather than an & Brothen, 1990, 2000) because we think that bas-
Based on Student Goals and Program of
entrenched solution to a problem that students ing decisions about someone’s future on one test
Study
may not actually have. Professionals in the field score while excluding other information is difficult
should question the assumptions behind devel- Educators should encourage students to take skill to justify. However, tests can provide information
opmental education practice and realize that it development courses when their courses are clearly to advisors and students about appropriate course
may mean very different things in different places related to their goals. This has implications both selection and to teachers about what their students’
with different students. The following discussion for students and programs. For example, most needs are. They can also serve as measures of pro-
of seven critical concepts offers a starting place for educators would agree that colleges should offer gram effectiveness.
this important conversation. precollege level mathematics courses, and 99% of 4. Integrate Alternative Teaching/
2-year and 78% of 4-year public colleges do offer
1. Continue and Refine Literary Skill Learning Approaches
math courses at the level of intermediate algebra or
Development Courses
below (NCES, 1996). The question is largely about Developmental education must continue to be
These classes have a place in higher education. which students should take remedial courses. For adaptable to a variety of educational situations.
It may not be wise or even possible to replace example, a student wishing to major in art, who Developmental educators have consistently dem-
stand-alone reading, precollege writing, and study took college preparation math courses in high onstrated that their craft can adapt to a variety of
36 Journal of DeVelopmental eDucatIon
situations. For example, a major state university, sub- (Cassaza, 1998; Wambach, Brothen, & Dikel, 2000), quickly into the regular college curriculum. But
ject to a state edict eliminating remedial education monographs (Higbee & Dwinell, 1996; Lundell & before this can happen effectively, some radical
programs at 4-year institutions, renamed the devel- Higbee, 2001), and the proceedings of a conference changes will need to take place in how college
opmental education unit “Academic Assistance” and on the future of developmental education (Chung teaching and learning is viewed. Smittle (2003)
is successfully serving a broad student population & Brothen, 2002) have described how theory can has summarized research and thinking about how
with a wide variety of needs (J.L. Higbee, personal be useful to practitioners. Theory can provide this should be done in developmental education,
communication, March 13, 2002). Our Research developmental educators with frameworks for outlining six principles to help educators become
I university has successfully eliminated remedial understanding why a wide variety of strategies more effective: Committing to the task of teaching
courses in reading and writing by integrating the might be effective, depending on the characteristics developmental students, demonstrating proficient
development of these skills into college-level courses of the students and the institution. knowledge of the subject matter, considering
(Wambach & delMas, 1998). Some institutions are For example, one approach to theory in noncognitive factors, providing an appropriate
less than forthright about their programs. Grubb developmental education (Wambach et al., 2000) learning environment, holding students to high
(1999) pointed out that “prestigious upper-division suggests that students coming to college need to standards, and evaluating and developing both
institutions try to make [developmental educa- believe they are taking college-level courses consis- developmental programs and one’s personal career.
tion] invisible” (p. 171). Their stealth approach is tent with their goals. If they do not, they are likely to Though Smittle’s (2003) guide focused mainly
possible because of the relatively small number of become discouraged and drop out. This means they on what one should do personally as a developmen-
underprepared students they admit. The task is dif- should receive challenging course material. But, tal educator, it can lend itself to the overall growth
ferent for institutions that have large numbers of because of their particular histories, they may need of a developmental community where effective-
these students. Integrating skill development into support to meet these challenges. Students need to ness is crucial. However, many college teachers are
all courses is intuitively even more compelling in feel that testing/placement programs identify skills still focusing on their particular content specialty
colleges where most students would benefit from important to their future that can be “remediated” rather than seeking out explicit knowledge of how
this approach (c.f., Curtis & Harte, 1991). in skills courses. For example, vocational students to teach the skills that are critical to the practice of
need to recognize the work they do in a reading their separate disciplines. For example, in the field
5. Use Theory to Inform Practice
skills course will help them read and understand of psychology, textbook reading is a critical skill
Developmental educators must make theory a difficult manuals in their technical fields. (Gurung, 2004), yet few psychology teachers have
more central part of their practice. Historically, more than intuitive knowledge of how to structure
6. Integrate Underprepared Students
they have followed an ad hoc approach. Committed assignments to improve student reading. A PsycInfo
into Mainstream Curriculum
developmental educators need to do a better job search of all the issues of Teaching of Psychology,
of uniting reflective thought with action. Recent Developmental education practice should be geared the journal psychology teachers turn to for teaching
articles in developmental education journals more toward integrating underprepared students ideas, located no articles listed by the key words
NADE News: Policy Preparation Should
Be By Professionals, Not Politicians
By Patti Levine-Brown, NADE President
As professionals, we must prepare for the coming changes that will impact wait for others to tell us how these changes need to be made. Take time to talk
the design and delivery of developmental education across the country. It is with other educators and administrators on your campuses. Ask them to join
imperative that we be involved with implementing these changes. For this us in discussions with those involved in workforce education, those on state
reason, the Executive Board is asking that more members become actively boards of education, district school board administrators, and community
involved with the NADE Special Professional Interest Networks (SPINs) leaders. Strengthening the internal operations of this organization is essential
and Committees. Working together with other NADE members to stay into get our message heard. Now, more than ever, we need to stay connected
abreast of these changes is some of the most important work we will do with one another, be focused on the tasks at hand, and speak up for those
this year. Also, we are asking that you work with your SPIN, Committee, who could be denied educational opportunities as a result of wide-sweeping
or state chapter to get copies of our Principles for Implementing State Wide policy changes that are not thoroughly thought out.
Innovation in Developmental Education (see page 41) into the hands of policy Working together, we can become stronger advocates for underprepared
makers. These principles are based on sound research, and they can serve as students and continue to help them build solid academic foundations that
a guide for state policy makers looking at ways to improve postsecondary will result in rewarding professional careers.
developmental education programs. Contact NADE SPIN Coordinator Karen TompsonWolfe at karen.tomp
Keep in mind that not all of the recommended changes are bad. We [email protected], Committee Coordinator Joyce Brasfield
know there is always room for program improvement. However, thousands Adams at [email protected] , or visit the NADE website at www.nade.net
of students will be impacted by these proposed changes, and we must not
NADE: Helping underprepared students prepare, prepared students advance, and advanced students excel!
National Association for Developmental Education • 500 N. Estrella Parkway Ste B2 PMB 412 • Goodyear, AZ 85338 • www.nade.net
Volume 36, Issue 2 • WInter 2012 37
“reading comprehension,” “reading development,” composition, and mathematics to improve stu- Arendale, D. (2002). History of Supplemental Instruction
(SI): Mainstreaming of developmental education. In D.B.
or “remedial reading.” Reading teachers possess dents’ skills across the curriculum.
Lundell & J. L. Higbee (Eds), Histories of developmental
the knowledge that psychologists need. In a system
Conclusion education (pp. 15-28). Minneapolis, MN: Center for
that melds skill and content, reading teachers would Research on Developmental Education and Urban
teach psychology teachers how to incorporate read- Providing access to postsecondary education to Literacy, General College, University of Minnesota.
ing development into their courses. all people—even students who are not fully ready Arendale, D. (2003, October). Developmental education:
One powerful strategy for accomplishing for college-level work—is a primary tenant of the Recognizing the past, preparing for the future. Paper
presented at the Minnesota Association for Develop-
this training is paired courses (Boylan, 1999; U.S. educational system. Policy makers can argue
mental Education 10th Annual Conference, Grand
Bullock, Madden, & Harter, 1987; Miller et al., over which institutions should provide access to
Rapids, MN.
1988; Wilcox, delMas, Stewart, Johnson, & Ghere, nontraditional students, but the reality is that most Bader, C. H., & Hardin, C. J. (2002). History of developmental
1997). Enrolling students in college-level courses institutions will serve at least some students who studies in Tennessee. In D.B. Lundell & J. L. Higbee
that are paired with skill development courses not are underprepared relative to their peers. The (Eds.), Histories of developmental education (pp. 35-45).
Minneapolis, MN: Center for Research on Develop-
only benefits students but also creates opportuni- question is not whether educators will work with
mental Education and Urban Literacy, General College,
ties for teachers in the college-level curriculum these students; the question is how they will do so.
University of Minnesota.
to benefit from the expertise of the skills teacher. Some form of developmental education will Berkner, L., He, S., & Cataldi, E. F. (2002). Descriptive
Paired courses along with workshops that encour- surely persist in all educational institutions; it’s summary of 1995-96 beginning postsecondary students:
age the development of course syllabi that address simply a matter of how educators choose to go about Six years later. Washington DC: U. S. Department of
Education.
development are low cost and effective ways of handling the responsibility of seeing to it that basic
Bers, T. H. (1987). Evaluating remedial education programs.
accomplishing this goal. skills are improved while quality content is taught
AIR Professional File, 29, 1-8.
7. Adjust Program Delivery According and high standards maintained. Boylan, H. R. (1999). Exploring alternatives to remediation.
to Institutional Type Articulation of a professional identity is essen- Journal of Developmental Education, 22(3), 2-10.
tial to the positioning of the field in academe, and Boylan, H. R., & Saxon, D. P. (1999). Outcomes of reme di-
Developmental educators need a better under- ation. Retrieved June 26, 2002 from http://www.ncde
.appstate.edu
standing of how developmental education can In a system that melds
Brothen, T., & Wambach, C. (2000). A research based
accommodate the history and culture of different
approach to developing a computer-assisted course for
skill and content, reading
types of higher education institutions. Research developmental students. In J. L. Higbee & P. L. Dwinell
to construct a typology of institutions would be (Eds.), The many faces of developmental education (pp.
teachers would teach
useful. For example, Wambach (2002) found that 59-72). Warrensburg, MO: National Association for
Developmental Education.
the public Big 10 Research I universities provide psychology teachers how
Bullock, T., Madden, D., & Harter, J. (1987). Paired develop-
academic and social support to small numbers
to incorporate reading mental reading and psychology courses. Research and
of underprepared students without much use of Teaching in Developmental Education, 3(3), 22-31.
stand alone skills courses or subject matter courses development into their Carnavale, A. P., & Rose, S. J. (2003). Socioeconomic status,
that also do skill development. Adjunct activities race/ethnicity, and selective college admissions. New
such as orientations, special advising, tutoring, and courses. York: Century Foundation. Retrieved April 24, 2003,
from http://www.equaleducation.org
Supplemental Instruction predominate, probably
Cassaza, M. (1998). Strengthening practice with theory.
because research faculty are unlikely to restructure Journal of Developmental Education, 22 (2), 14-43.
their courses to develop academic skills. We believe identifying educational values and goals consistent Chung, C., & Brothen, T. (2002). Some final thoughts on
this approach works because students deciding to across developmental education, learning assis- theoretical perspectives--over lunch. Proceedings of the
matriculate at a research university typically are tance, and all support services can help develop a Second Meeting on Future Directions in Developmental
Education. Retrieved October 6, 2003 from http://www.
more motivated or otherwise better prepared to more unified identity. Just as there are myriad needs
gen.umn.edu/research/crdeul/publications.htm
meet the expectations of university faculty than that students bring to developmental education
Cross, K. P. (1971). Beyond the open door. San Francisco:
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(Wambach, 1990; Wambach & delMas, 1998). Even meet those needs. A renewed focus on the ideas Curtis, S. M., & Harte, J. (1991). A freshman retention project
if their “on paper” qualifications look similar, many of literacy skill development, encouragement, at Borough of Manhattan Community College. New
York, NY: City University of New York Manhattan
students at community and technical colleges placement testing procedures, adaptability, theory,
Community College. (ERIC Document Reproduction
may be sorely disadvantaged by implementation integration, and typology may help developmental
Service No. ED 348096)
of approaches that are successful with research educators to find a common vision for the educa- Gurung, R. A. R. (2004). Pedagogical aids: Learning
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look at teaching in the community colleges. New York:
which developmental students identified by valid insure the survival and progress of the field.
Routledge.
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