ERIC EJ1022600: Principal Efficacy: Implications for Rural "Grow Your Own" Leadership Programs

2013·0.27 MB·English

by  ERIC

Principal Efficacy:
Implications for Rural ‘Grow Your Own’ Leadership Programs
Tena M. Versland
Montana State University

Although "grow your own" principal preparation programs have become a popular method for recruiting and
selecting administrator candidates for hard to fill positions in both urban and rural schools, “grow your own”
prinicpal candidates in rural contexts may be more vulnerable to the phenomenon of loss of self-efficacy. This study
suggests that conditions related to candidate recruitment, social isolation, changing relationships with former
colleagues, and lack of mentoring support can negatively affect aspiring principals’ beliefs and ultimately actions in
leading rural schools. This study examines the loss of self-efficacy phenomenon, and suggests how university /school
district partnerships might work to develop effective recruitment, support, and mentoring practices for rural ‘grow
your own’candidates.

Key Words: principal preparation, recruitment,and mentoring, school/university partnerships, rural schools.

Tschannen-Moran and Gareis (2007) assert that in teaching ranks (Joseph, 2009). Although such
addition to research-based curricula and instructional initiatives are commonplace in urban areas (Fink &
practices, education leadership programs should also Brayman, 2006; Joseph, 2009), questions arise as to
look to provide experiences and supportive structures how successful such programs are in developing self-
that build aspiring principals’ self-efficacy. Bandura efficacy in prospective school leaders. The purpose
(1997) suggests that self-efficacy is vital to school of this qualitative study is to examine the conditions
leader success because efficacious leaders set higher that may impact the sense of efficacy among rural
goals, are more able to adapt to changing contexts “grow your own” leaders and consider how
and are more persistent in overcoming obstacles. preparation programs and rural districts might work
Luthans and Peterson (2002) determined that leader together in meeting the needs of “grow your own”
self-efficacy had a positive effect on employees’ principals.
engagement with their work. Similarly, Goddard and Finding efficacious school leaders is difficult.
Salloum (2011) found that leader self-efficacy Schools across the country are faced with the
enhanced schools’ collective efficacy and faculty’s challenge of attracting and retaining highly qualified
ability to innovate and promote higher levels of principals who are capable of building human capital
student achievement. As leader self-efficacy and implementing school improvement processes for
development is dependent on personal increased student achievement (Educational Research
accomplishment, learning from others and Services, 2000; Institute of Educational Leadership,
socialization experiences, self-efficacy can either 2005; Quinn, 2002; U.S. Department of Education,
increase or decline based on the processes under 2011). There is a crisis in both quantity, as noted in
which new principals are selected into leadership, the the availability of principal candidates across the K-
social conditions present in the schools they are 12 spectrum (Educational Research Services, 2000),
assigned to lead, and the degree of mentoring and and quality in regard to training experiences that
assistance they receive during their initial training adequately prepare principals for the complexity of
and placement (Tschannen-Morna & Gareis, 2007). leading contemporary schools (Levine, 2005).
Because leader self-efficacy can have a positive Commentary on effective leader preparation has
influence on the attitudes and motivations of teachers evolved steadily over the last two decades with
as well as student achievement (Goddard & Salloum, numerous published studies detailing new paradigms
2011),, and because leader recruitment and retention that suggest the necessity for program change
has become especially challenging in small rural specifically with respect to recruitment and selection,
environments, understanding the conditions that may integration of academic work with clinical practice
impact efficacy can assist school districts and and mentoring (Darling- Hammond, Lapointe,
universities to more effectively partner to recruit, Meyerson, & Orr, 2007; Jackson & Kelley, 2002;
train and mentor leaders for rural schools. Southern Regional Education Board, 2009).
Because of recruitment challenges, many rural Although issues of recruitment and selection, in
districts develop leadership from within their particular, impact many schools regardless of size or
location, they may be especially problematic in rural task; and psychological arousal - the degree to which
communities where pools of applicants are small, or people look forward to, or dread a specific task
non-existent (U.S. Department of Education, 2011). (Bandura, 1997).
Lack of mentoring, low salaries, geographic isolation Darling-Hammond, La Pointe, Meyerson, and Orr
and scarce resources make recruiting quality (2007) identified the need for principal preparation
candidates extremely challenging (Cruzeiro & programs to address self-efficacy. They observed,
Boone, 2009). Additionally, the work in rural “Those who are prepared in innovative, high quality
schools requires principals to hone several different programs are more likely to become instructional
skill sets and assume multiple responsibilities. leaders who are committed to the job and efficacious
Rural school leaders have to be generalists. in their work” (Darling Hammond, et al., 2007, p.6.)
Typically, school systems in rural America do not Specific kinds of preparation program experiences
have assistant superintendents or a lot of other may be designed to provide aspiring principals with
centrally focused staff such as federal programs opportunities for self-efficacy development.
directors or department chairs. Rural school leaders Mastery experiences may be developed where
must be prepared to do many things, and the training students learn about specific theories and apply those
programs must be multi-faceted (IEL, 2005). Because theories to case studies and problem-based learning
rural leaders frequently lead single administrator assignments. Vicarious learning can be built into
schools or districts, the need for purposeful experiences where students meet and learn from
mentoring between districts and universities is vital effective school leaders who discuss, illustrate and
in ensuring that new leaders are provided the support model how to accomplish school improvement
and encouragement for developing skills in all facets initiatives. Social persuasion becomes possible as
of school leadership. faculty mentors arrange learning experiences that
Based on the complexities and challenges of rural provide new leaders with challenges that also
environments, and the need for efficacy building promote success. Finally, as aspiring principals learn
experiences for leader success, it is prudent to to cope with greater levels of stress and conquer
examine rural leader selection and mentoring within feelings of inadequacy, their beliefs about becoming
these contexts. successful school leaders increase.
To frame this study, a review of selected literature Wahlstrom, Seashore-Louis, Leithwood and
focuses on these inter-related topics: the importance Anderson (2010) suggested that self-efficacy was a
of leader self-efficacy to school success, the ways in necessary component of successful school leadership
which rural contexts may affect leadership, leader because it affects choices principals make about what
shortage and principal turnover, the increase in ‘grow activities in which to engage as well as the coping
your own leader’ programs, and the potential for loss strategies they employ as challenges emerge. They
of efficacy during grow your own programs, and. the concluded that principals’ sense of efficacy and their
conditions under which self-efficacy may decline. ability to influence others was vital to accomplishing
instructional leadership practices associated with
Importance of Leader Self-Efficacy setting direction, developing people, redesigning the
organization and managing the instructional program.
Self-efficacy theory provides a conceptual
framework through which to examine the factors of Loss of Leader Self-Efficacy
effective leadership and the ways in which these
factors enhance school success and student growth. Just as an emerging sense of efficacy can build
Bandura (1997) presented the construct of self- leader engagement, the loss of efficacy for aspiring
efficacy as the missing piece for understanding how principals can be incapacitating. Since new leaders
people’s beliefs about their capabilities influence have had few successful mastery performances to
their actions and ultimately their success. “The draw inspiration from, their sense of self-efficacy is
stronger their beliefs, the more vigorous and especially vulnerable and may actually decrease as
persistent are people’s efforts” (Bandura, 1997, p. they confront challenging situations with varying
394). Perceptions of self-efficacy can be either levels of success or failure (Bandura, 2009).
positive and empower people to action, or negative, Schaufeli and Salanova (2007) found that job burnout
and cause people doubt, resulting in inaction. Four is characterized by inefficacy. Loss of self-efficacy
sources generate self-efficacy development: mastery inhibits a leader’s ability to set higher goals, and can
experience - successfully completing a specific task; negatively affect the performance of followers and
vicarious experience - learning by watching others; their commitment to organizational goals
social persuasion- influential mentors persuading (McCormick, 2001). Principals who experience this
people to believe they can successfully complete a perception of loss regarding their leadership
capabilities have little chance of achieving success problem-solving. Principals with limited access to
with reform strategies (Tschannen-Moran & Gareis, leader networks expressed feelings of social and
2007). professional isolation as well as job dissatisfaction.
In light of these leader recruitment and retention
Leader Shortage and Principal Turnover issues faced by rural schools, researchers identified
the need to address recruitment strategies, and rural
In 2000, the National Association of Secondary leader preparation (Browne-Ferrigno & Allen, 2006;
School Principals surveyed district level Wood, Finch & Mirecki, 2013 ;).
superintendents about the availability of candidates
for principal positions and found a gap between The Rise of “Grow Your Own”
leadership positions and qualified candidates to fill Leadership Programs
them. Quinn (2002) stated:
This shortage occurred among rural schools As the focus on school quality and leader
(52%), suburban schools (45%), and urban accountability has increased, education leadership
schools (47%). These shortages of qualified programs have become the focus of increased
principal candidates also occurred at all levels: scrutiny and criticism (Levine, 2005). Alternative
elementary (47%), junior high/middle (55%), and training programs such as “grow your own” leader
senior high (55%). (Quinn, 2002, p.25.) academies have emerged from preparation program
Not only are qualified candidates difficult to find, critiques as school districts and schools of education
there is also concern about their mobility and the have looked to develop new paradigms for principal
effect that leader transition has on school certification and licensure. Following is a review of
improvement processes and student achievement. program criticisms, features of exemplary programs
A 2010 Wallace Foundation report indicated that and the development of “grow your own” leader
typically, principal turnover occurs rapidly: once preparation.
every three to four years. Rapid principal turnover
has significant negative effects on school culture and Criticisms of Traditional Preparation Programs
consequently, student achievement, (Wahlstrom, et
al., 2010). While leader succession difficulties exist In the last decade, principal preparation programs
across urban, suburban and rural schools, recruitment have been criticized for a variety of reasons including
of school leaders to work in rural contexts may selection and recruitment, disconnect between theory
present even greater challenges. First, rural tax bases and practice, weak faculty, and sporadic
have been eroded due to depopulation; fewer internship/field experience requirements (Creighton
taxpayers means less taxes collected which affects & Jones, 2001; Levine, 2005). Few programs were
districts’ abilities to pay competitive salaries, provide found that exhibited rigor in the selection and
current resources and maintain school facilities and recruitment process; fewer yet actively reached out to
technology infrastructures (Ayers, 2011). Second, the talented individuals (Creighton & Jones, 2001).
workload and expectations of rural leader positions Levine’s (2005) criticism of preparation programs
may also negatively influence leader recruitment. In faulted overreliance on weak, adjunct faculty for
larger districts, school leaders have access to other failing to promote a theoretical framework that
professionals who typically manage federal and state marries the best research with real world practices.
level programs, organize curricula, and design Finally, although support for clinical practice
professional development for staff. Rural (internships) was widely professed, huge variations
administrators are usually the only leaders in schools existed with regards to the scope and design of
and may be the only leader in a district; they may internships (Gray, Fry, Bottoms & O’Neill, 2007).
have sole responsibility for coordinating all federal
and state programs, organizing professional Exemplary Preparation Practices
development and curricular revisions, mentoring all
teachers and supervising all student extracurricular In attempts to identify and describe effective
activities (Cruzeiro & Boone, 2009). Lastly, isolation practices in contemporary leader preparation,
and lack of socialization opportunities may inhibit researchers have detailed research-based program
recruiting and retaining leaders in rural contexts. components necessary to insure that principal
Hite, Reynolds and Hite, (2010) examined networks candidates gain the skills and knowledge needed to
of rural principals and found that principals who had lead schools effectively. Two studies by the Stanford
access to networks of more experienced leaders in Educational Leadership Institute (2007) and the
their own schools or districts experienced greater Southern Regional Education Board (2006) have
access to information, collaboration and shared illuminated common program features that support
principal candidates though the integration of people pursue immediate or provisional principal licensure
and experiences that build leadership. Exemplary in order to serve a school or become the district’s
programs feature these common attributes: only administrator. Because they do not possess any
1. Partnerships with school districts that recruit formal certification or administrator endorsement,
highly skilled teachers for school leadership, and these new teacher leaders must enroll in a formal
engage expert practitioners in mentoring aspiring preparation program and take graduate level classes
school leaders. while assuming all the job responsibilities associated
2. Standards based curriculum emphasizing with a leadership position. For these new leaders,
instructional leadership throughout coursework and finding a network of support from other leaders who
clinical experience. could act as mentors is especially important. Hite,
3. Instructional methods that use the tenets of adult Reynolds and Hite (2010) found that administrator
learning theory. networks across and between districts allowed
4. Faculty with relevant practitioner experience. principals to be better informed about state and
national trends, and participate in greater
“Grow Your Own” Leadership Preparation collaborative and shared problem-solving activities
with more experienced leaders. By contrast, in single
In light of the attention to preparation program administrator rural schools or districts, principals
redesign, alternative programs have emerged that must rely on networks and relationships with teachers
feature partnerships of local universities with local for support and assistance. When those relationships
school districts to develop principal candidates from are strong, collaboration and shared problem solving
teachers within local schools (Joseph, 2009). Known positively influence school improvement processes.
as “grow your own” leadership preparation programs, When relationships are weak, promoting school
they have enjoyed popularity especially in large improvement processes becomes much more
urban and suburban school districts. Typically, difficult.
principal candidates apply for or are chosen to
participate in leadership academies that specifically Grow Your Own Programs and Loss of Efficacy
prepare those candidates to work as school leaders in
the context of the sponsoring districts. Candidates Although “grow your own” programs may be an
learn about school leadership in formal programs of attractive alternative to traditional education
study from university faculty while being immersed leadership training, rural principals in “grow your
in the culture and climate of local schools. Expert own” environments might be more vulnerable to loss
(principal) mentors supervise them through internship of self-efficacy. “Grow your own” rural principals
experiences as candidates learn the specific tasks of have often been hired with little or no administrative
leadership (Fink & Brayman, 2006; Joseph, 2009). experience, college coursework or leadership
These internship experiences continue for at least a training, and consequently, have not mastered basic
year before candidates are formally evaluated for skills of leadership. They often lack competence in
leadership positions within the district. managerial practices as well as knowledge about
Rural school districts have also sought to develop school leadership. Second, because rural “grow your
new school leaders through “grow your own” own” leaders are many times the only leader in the
programs (Browne-Ferrigno & Allen, 2006; Institute school setting, they have no models to watch and are
for Educational Leadership, 2005). However, the less likely to learn vicariously from other leaders
realities associated with small rural schools make (Cruzeiro & Boone, 2009). Third, new leaders need
“grow your own” programs more difficult to encouragement from others and affirmations that they
implement. Distances up to 500 miles between rural are competent and effective (Wahlstrom, Seashore-
schools and universities that have educational Louis, Leithwood &Anderson, 2010). Unfortunately,
leadership programs, make commuting to attend because new principals may not have yet mastered
classes difficult for some rural teacher leaders certain organizational and relational skills, they are
(Townsell, 2007). Challenges with technology in likely to make more mistakes, inviting criticism from
small communities make online programs less than teachers and others. Rather than experiencing
desirable. Remote rural schools may face a shortage positive social persuasion through encouraging
of expert practitioners to mentor aspiring principal comments from others, rural principals may actually
candidates during the program. receive more negative feedback and begin to doubt
In rural districts, where the pool of qualified and their leadership capabilities with regard to even the
licensed candidates is small or non-existent, local smallest matter (Bandura, 2009).
teachers who have not had any training or Nevertheless, the phenomenon of loss of efficacy
coursework in education leadership, may be asked to during “grow your own” preparation programs has
not been well researched and is worthy of greater their sense of efficacy and now enjoyed established
examination. Specifically, this study sought to careers in school leadership. Interview data
examine aspiring principals’ efficacy beliefs and suggested that similar conditions existed across
identify the conditions that surrounded loss of varying contexts that may have influenced
efficacy as well as determine how preparation candidates’ loss of efficacy during their internships
programs and rural districts might work together in and in their initial work as new principals. To further
better meeting the needs of rural principals. understand this loss of self-efficacy phenomenon
with “grow your own” principals, a 10 question
Methods and Analysis follow-up protocol clarifying loss of efficacy
experiences was developed by the researcher. To
This qualitative study on self-efficacy and “grow triangulate these initial findings, the researcher asked
your own” leadership programs emerged as an permission to contact teachers and university mentors
unexpected finding from a larger mixed methods who had worked with the principals during their
study about how elements in principal preparation “grow your own” experiences. The “grow your own”
programs influenced the development of self-efficacy principals interviewed for this study were two
beliefs (Versland, 2009). Data reported here were women; one who served in a K-8 school of less than
collected from interviews with three principals who 150 students, and another who led a 230 student
experienced loss of efficacy, three teacher colleagues elementary school in a community of 7000 people.
who worked with the principals and two university The third participant was a male high school
faculty members who acted as preparation program principal in a school with 605 students in a
supervisors. community of 9000 residents. The man had over 20
years of principal experience and the women
Participants possessed six and nine years of principal experience
respectively. All had over 10 years of teaching
The principal participants for the larger study experience.
were initially chosen on the basis of their responses
on a 54 item questionnaire that was sent Procedures
electronically to all 538 practicing principals in
Montana. A total of 54% of principals completed Interviews were tape recorded and typically lasted
and returned the questionnaire which contained an hour. Interview questions focused on how “grow
questions about principals’ perceptions of the your own” program experiences influenced leaders’
effectiveness of their preparation programs as well as beliefs. Other open-ended questions asked about
their own self-efficacy development. Of the 292 working conditions in the schools, relationships
respondents, 64 principals rated their personal leader between and among school personnel, prior
self-efficacy highly (7 or greater on a 9 point scale); leadership experiences and leader competence.
41 principals rated their preparation programs as Following the interviews, the data were transcribed
highly effective (7 or greater on the 9 point scale); and sent to interview participants to be reviewed for
and only 22 principals were identified who rated both accuracy and to establish credibility.
their preparation program and their self-efficacy
highly. The other participants in the study reported Data Analysis
mostly moderate ratings of self-efficacy (4- 6 points
on the 9 point scale); and low to moderate ratings of Data analysis utilized open coding of the
program effectiveness (1- 6 points on the 9 point interviews using Bandura’s four sources of self-
scale). Of the 22 principals who rated both their efficacy as a framing structure. Inductive analysis of
personal self-efficacy and their preparation programs data first employed unitization to examine single
highly, ten were chosen who were in a 200 mile pieces (units) of information that stood by themselves
proximity to the researcher for personal in-depth and then organized those units into categories with
interviews. similar characterizations. Once categories were
As interviews progressed, an unexpected finding established, the researcher also looked for links and
arose; four of the 10 principals were from “grow your similarities between categories that would establish
own” programs and three of those four described a relationships between program elements and self-
loss of self-efficacy in their initial internship efficacy development. The categories were then
experience. Although each principal reported an coded thematically. Following feedback from a
initial loss of efficacy during the first few years of second member check, the researcher summarized the
leadership while completing their preparation data and posited theories about principal loss of
program, all reported that over time they regained
efficacy and the conditions that contributed to the that all three principals had replaced long time
phenomenon. leaders who were very popular with staff and who
were considered highly competent in all areas of
Findings leadership. It would have been difficult for an
experienced administrator to fill those shoes, but for
In examining the experiences of principals who these inexperienced leaders, that task was well
reported loss of self-efficacy during their preparation beyond their immediate skill set. Their lack of skill
programs, several common factors emerged that may and knowledge placed them at a disadvantage for
have contributed to the loss of efficacy. Analysis of leading their schools.
the data revealed that lack of prior leadership
experiences, leader selection processes, and Relationships with Others
relationships with others influenced leaders’ loss of
efficacy. The findings revealed the presence of a few
common conditions that appeared to negatively
Lack of Prior Leadership Experiences influence principals’ relationships with others.
During leader transition, all three districts
The findings from this study are reported using experienced labor issues which spawned turbulent
Bandura’s (1997) framework of four sources of self- climates. The principals believed they were exposed
efficacy. First, in terms of mastery experiences, the to greater scrutiny and criticism from teacher
“grown your own” principals had teaching colleagues due to negative views of “administration”
experience in only one grade or in one school and did promoted by some teachers. One principal felt that
not have any substantial leadership experiences her former teacher colleagues had abandoned her
beyond that of a self-contained classroom teacher or because she was suddenly on the opposite side of
school counselor. None of these principals had union politics. The principals believed that the
worked in other school districts and as a result each history of strong unions and unfriendly ties between
had a very narrow frame of reference regarding management and teachers created a negative
education and education leadership as a whole. environment for any administrative change. There
Interestingly, this factor paralleled one of Levine’s was also the belief that former teacher friends felt the
(2005) criticisms of “grow your own” programs; new principals could no longer empathize with their
internally “tapped” candidates lacked knowledge and positions and concerns and as a result those
experience beyond their current placement. While friendships changed and, in many cases, ended
each of these principals did possess more than 10 altogether.
years of teaching experience, they lacked a “big The degree of changing relationships with former
picture” view of what it meant to manage and lead a colleagues and friends and the inability to form
school. relationships with other professionals was reported as
the primary factor for loss of efficacy by the
Selection Process principals themselves. Since these principals were
the lone administrator in their schools, they had little
Social persuasion is another source of efficacy opportunity to learn from others or be mentored by
development that is dependent on relationship expert practitioners. The lack of vicarious learning, or
building skills to gain acceptance and support, and to learning from the successful modeling of others,
influence others. In this study, it is possible that the meant that these new leaders had no successful role
leader selection processes negatively impacted models to emulate and no one to provide
principal efficacy. Unlike most principals who are encouragement and advice. While one of the
chosen for leadership positions through open and principals had other administrator colleagues in the
competitive selection processes, the three “grow your district, she reported feeling that they were slow to
own” principals in this study were more or less accept her as an equal. Describing her situation she
appointed into their positions by district level recalled, I was no longer a colleague and friend, but I
administration. None of them had applied to a leader wasn’t an administrator, either.
preparation program or had taken any coursework in As principals began to experience greater job-
leadership theory and practice before they were asked related stress, their ability to set high goals, develop
to accept leadership positions in their districts. It is collaborative relationships and overcome even the
possible that resentment from other teachers about smallest of obstacles also declined. Rather than reach
how these candidates were chosen caused jealousy out to others, principals turned inward, engaging in
and compromised the leaders’ ability to build mostly top-down decision-making and setting goals
relationships. Compounding the issue was the fact that were easy to accomplish but that had little impact
on school improvement. As their inability to cope they’d turn on me.’ I could give her technical
with stress (the fourth efficacy source) increased, advice, but I couldn’t make her look at her own
these leaders became more fatalistic about their behaviors and beliefs for more permanent
situations, attributing failures to circumstances solutions.
outside their locus of control. Rather than try other Questions that emerged about candidates’
strategies to strengthen relationships and maintain intellectual prowess further indicate inadequate
friendships, “grow your own” principals tended recruitment processes that failed to insure that
initially to believe instead that no amount of effort on candidates possessed the necessary intellectual
their part would result in more favorable outcomes. capacity to successfully lead.
Teacher colleagues and university supervisors
Perceptions of Teacher Colleagues and University agreed that because principals lacked skill and belief
Supervisors in their ability to collaborate and share leadership and
decision-making, they routinely set goals that were
Three former teacher colleagues and two only superficial in nature rather than those that would
university supervisors of these “grow your own” rural build instructional capacity or raise student
principals were interviewed to triangulate and deepen achievement. For example, principals opted to make
understanding of the loss of efficacy phenomenon for changes in lunch schedules, recess activities for
these leaders. The teacher colleagues initially viewed students and engage teachers in heightened
the “grow your own” principals in this study as weak expectations to document student misbehavior. A 5th
candidates to lead their schools. The teachers cited as grade teacher remarked:
concerns regarding the principal appointees’ lack of At our school, goals were aimed at kids changing;
prior leadership experiences and their lack of strong making them more accountable or better behaved.
relationships with staff members before their Teachers really weren’t challenged to change or
principal appointment. One colleague described her move forward at all. Once, we approached
former principal as having limited influence with Principal Y about our concerns that some
teachers even though she had been the most senior teachers were not using their Professional
teacher on the staff.” Two teacher colleagues Learning Community time appropriately, or doing
explained that teachers were reluctant to follow the anything meaningful. She got upset and told us
new leaders because they had questions about their she was demonstrating trust by allowing grade
intellectual capacity and tendency to embrace fads. levels to set their own agendas. That was a joke,
One teacher remarked, If it didn’t come with a recipe, she just didn’t want to deal with the conflict… so
we didn’t do it, because it was too hard for her to the neediest teachers who needed support and
manage. So that meant that nothing of any real value direction disengaged and just put in their time.
occurred. It is interesting that although this teacher Loss of efficacy had a profound effect on the
believed that the principal’s intellectual capacity principals in this study. Interestingly enough, these
accounted for the inability to set meaningful and leaders were able to gain back self-efficacy over time
challenging goals, given that this principal was later and became effective leaders. Two regained efficacy
able to succeed in other school improvement because they moved to new jobs and were able to
endeavors, it is likely that weak self-efficacy rather start over and develop trust with new faculty. The
than competence was the key variable. third regained efficacy with perseverance in the
University supervisors somewhat concurred with original leadership position. As the principal’s
teachers about leaders’ intellectual capacity. One technical skills improved, relationships with teachers
supervisor described a principal as lacking in depth improved and strengthened the individual’s ability to
of thought and unable to devise creative and lead. However, the leader’s transformation was not
collaborative solutions to problems. Principal X was without sacrifice; some long held friendships did not
only able to generate ideas that were tied to very recover.
traditional beliefs about education. Another
supervisor described a situation in which staff Implications
relations had become strained. The principal
withdrew from staff, blaming the communication The implications of this study center on how
breakdown solely on teachers. education leadership programs together with rural
Self-reflection for Principal Y was virtually non- school administrators can improve the selection and
existent. She never asked, ‘what else can I do to mentoring of “grow your own” principals. Many of
change the course of things? Or how do I right the issues that the rural “grow your own” leaders
the ship?’ Instead, she blamed the teachers for faced in this study were caused by weak selection
the problems and remarked, ‘I can’t believe processes that did not allow for a competitive
procedure whereby the candidates with the best Salloum, 2011), it is useful to also understand the
potential for leadership would surface. To expand the conditions that may lead to loss of self-efficacy in
pool of leader candidates, university and district principals. Because leaders who experience a loss of
personnel should publicly announce the intent to self-efficacy tend to set less challenging goals and
begin a “grow your own” program for developing often give up when confronted with obstacles or
and supporting internal candidates for rural limitations, it can be surmised that principals who
leadership. To expand the pool, a partnership among suffer a loss of efficacy may experience difficulty
several small rural schools in close proximity to one achieving four core leadership practices associated
another may be considered in order to demonstrate a with student achievement: setting direction,
fair and open process, and promote impartiality. developing people, redesigning the organization and
Partnerships between rural districts and universities managing the instructional program (Wahlstrom, et
are another method to develop a regional leader al., 2010). The “grow your own” principals in this
candidate pool whereby several schools could study who experienced loss of self-efficacy,
recognize and promote local teachers to become recounted that as their long-standing relationships
specifically trained to lead rural schools. This design with colleagues changed and ended, the principals
may create a potential pipeline of candidates for lost their belief in their ability to be successful in
immediate as well as future openings. Other developing teachers and making educationally
findings suggest that candidates should demonstrate relevant decisions. Although they lamented the loss
skill in three areas before being chosen to enter the of relationships with former colleagues, the rural
“grow your own” leader pipeline: prior leadership “grow your own” principals in this study found
experience in chairing committees, leading teams, or mentors in other administrators and university faculty
developing programs; the ability to collaborate and who helped them overcome their relational setbacks
work with others to solve problems, and proven with teachers. Initially, principals withdrew rather
intellectual capacity for self-reflection and critical than stepped forward to lead their schools. However
thinking. with the help of mentors, principals in this study were
able to regain their self-efficacy about leading
Partnerships for Selection and Mentoring schools. Using mentors’ advice and expertise, they
learned to solicit teacher input to redesign
Once formal internship experience begins, both organizational outcomes and positively influenced
district and university should adopt purposeful the instructional capacity of their schools.
mentoring experiences to support the intern. These Besides creating mentoring opportunities through
mentoring activities should include frequent meetings more purposeful university and district partnerships,
to share ideas, discuss social processes and reflect on the implications of this study also suggest the
qualitative data collected from teachers, other staff development of broad-based selection and
and supervisors. To this end, university supervisors recruitment procedures which encourage several staff
must be ready to monitor and evaluate the success of members to acquire leadership training and licensure.
the principal. By surveying teachers about the School districts and university leadership partners
leader’s focus in setting direction, developing people, should work to develop a regional leader candidate
redesigning the organization and managing the pool whereby several schools can recognize and
instructional program - all necessary elements of promote local teacher leaders who would then learn
instructional leadership (Wahlstrom, et al., 2010) - the skills and knowledge to effectively lead rural
university partners can assist districts by providing schools. The intersection of loss of efficacy and
meaningful feedback to the principal and district “grow your own” programs presents opportunities for
team. In small rural districts, where the intern is extending this research. Surveying rural leaders
likely the only administrator, the local school board trained in traditional programs might help better
should also be encouraged to network and possibly illuminate other conditions that influence loss of
hire expert principals or superintendents from efficacy. Additionally, examining the extent to which
neighboring districts to act as mentors for the intern “grow your own” leaders persist in their jobs or leave
in order to provide ongoing support and socialization. them could help districts develop plans to increase
retention of effective leaders in rural schools.
Conclusion

Because a link exists between principal self- .
efficacy and student achievement (Goddard &
.
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About the Author:

Tena Versland is an assistant professor in educational leadership at Montana State University. She served K-12
schools in Montana as a music teacher and middle and high school principal for 30 years.